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NORTH  CAROLINA  STATE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


III  nil:  jjiiiiiiiji  11.11  ;iiiiiiiii  in 
S01950166  S 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED    AT    THE    CIRCULATION 
DESK. 

APR -9 1986 

100M/7-85 

f07 


W\ 


THE   FEEDING   OF 
DAIRY   CATTLE 


BY 

ANDREW  C.  McCANDLISH,  M.S. A. 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Iowa  Stale  College 
of  Agricullure  and  Mechanic  Arts 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS,    Inc. 

London:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited 
1922 


Copyright,  1922 
By  ANDREW  C.  McCANDLISH 


PRESS  OF 

BRAUNWORTH  &    CO. 

BOOK    MANUFACTURERS 

BROOKLYN,    N.    Y. 


Imp.  Jewel's  Guernsey  Lily 


DEDICATED 


TH1-:   COW   WITH  THE 
CRUMPLED   HORN 


V^ 


P> 


1730^ 


PREFACE 


The  art  and  science  of  feeding  dairy  cattle  has  ever  been 
changing,  and  during  the  last  two  decades  greater  improve- 
ments have  been  brought  about  in  this  branch  of  agriculture, 
by  practical  feeders  and  investigators,  than  ever  before. 
The  importance  of  the  dairy  cow  as  an  economic  factor  is  now 
recognized.  This  is  primarily  due  to  the  fact  that,  with 
little  waste  of  energy,  she  converts  the  roughages  and  other 
feeds  grown  on  the  farm  into  products  suitable  for  human 
consumption. 

In  making  this  presentation  of  the  feeding  problem  the 
aim  has  been  to  render  the  work  broad  enough  to  be  of  aid 
to  the  student.  For  this  purpose  the  earlier  sections  contain 
a  brief  resume  of  material  which  belongs  to  the  field  of  nutri- 
tion rather  than  to  that  of  feeding.  It  is  hoped  that  this 
will  render  it  possible  for  the  student  to  link  up  his  work  on 
feeding  dairy  cattle  with  the  training  he  has  previously 
received  in  nutrition.  At  the  same  time  it  is  hoped  that  the 
man  interested  in  feeding,  but  with  little  foundation  in 
nutrition,  may  obtain  some  information  of  value  from  the 
earlier  part  of  the  work.  To  put  it  briefly,  the  main  object 
in  view  has  been  to  review,  in  a  non-technical  manner,  the 
main  principles  on  which  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  is  founded 
and  then  discuss  the  problems  of  practical  feeding. 

Much  of  the  technical  information  included  has  been  ob- 
tained   from    Government    and    State    Experiment    Station 


Vlll  PREFACE 

publications,  but  as  this  is  not  intended  to  be  a  reference 
work,  direct  mention  of  these  could  not  always  be  made. 
The  remaining  material  consists  of  information  obtained  in 
the  practical  management  of  a  herd  and  from  many  feeders, 
as  well  as  from  experience  gained  while  connected  with  the 
practical  and  investigational  work  of  the  Dairy  Husbandry 
Department  of  Iowa  State  College,  during  the  past  eight  years. 
All  of  the  illustrations  are  taken  from  the  Iowa  State 
College  herd,  and  the  writer  wishes  to  express  his  thanks  to 
Dean  C.  F.  Curtiss  for  permission  to  use  these.  The  author 
also  wishes  to  express  his  appreciation  of  the  advice  received 
from  Professor  H.  H.  Kildee;  of  the  excellent  suggestions 
received  from  Professor  E.  Weaver,  who  read  the  manuscript; 
and  of  the  valuable  editorial  aid  given  by  Professor  F.  W. 
Beckman. 

Andrew  C.  McCandlish. 

Iowa  State  College,  Ames,  Iowa. 
September,  19  21 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  DAIRYING 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The  Individual  Cow  as  the  Unit  in  Profitable  Dairying.  ...  3 

Breeding 3 

Selection 7 

II.  The  Importance  of  Feeding 15 

Liberal  Feeding  Essential 15 

Beginning  with  the  Young  Stock 18 

Necessity  of  Individual  Feeding 19 

PART  II 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FEEDING 

III.  The  Elementary  Composition  of  Feeds 25 

Carbon 25 

Hj'drogen 26 

Oxj'gen 26 

Nitrogen 27 

Potassium 27 

Sodium 27 

Calcium 28 

Magnesium 28 

Iron 28 

Sulphur 28 

Phosphorus 28 

Iodine 29 

Chlorine 29 

Fluorine 29 

Silicon 30 

ix 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PACE 

IV.  The  Constituents  of  Feeds 31 

Water 32 

Carbohydrates 32 

Crude  Fiber 32 

Nitrogen-free  Extract 32 

F^ts ^^ 

Proteins 33 

Non-protein  Nitrogenous  Compounds 34 

Vitamines 34 

Pigments 35 

Ash 35 

V.  Digestion  and  Absorption 36 

The  Mouth 37 

The  Stomach 38 

Rumen 39 

Reticulum 40 

Omasum 41 

Abomasum 41 

The  Intestine 42 

Small  Intestine 42 

Large  Intestine 45 

VI.  The  Utilization  of  Nutrients 46 

The  Body  Activities 46 

Maintenance 46 

Fattening 47 

Growth 47 

Fetal  Development 48 

Milk  Production 

Comparison  of  the  Nutrients 49 

Digestibility 49 

Digestible  Carbohydrate  Equivalent 49 

\  Total  Digestible  Nutrients 49 

Nutritive  Ratio 50 

Energy  Values 50 

Functions  of  the  Nutrients 52 

Water 52 

Carbohydrates 52 

Fats 53 

Proteins 53 

Non-protein  Nitrogenous  Compounds : .  .  53 

Vitamines 54 

Pigments 56 

Ash 58 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

VII.  The  Influence  of  Nutrition  on  Production 60 

Individual  Nutrients 60 

Water 60 

Carbohydrates 60 

Fats 61 

Proteins 61 

Amount  of  Protein 61 

Nature  of  Protein 62 

Non-protein  Nitrogenous  Compounds 63 

Vitamines 63 

Pigments 63 

Ash 63 

Plane  of  Nutrition 63 

Overfeeding 63 

Underfeeding 64 

FART  III 

THE  REQUIREMENTS  OE  THE  ANIMAL 

VIII.  Feeding  Standards 69 

Development 69 

Criticisms 72 

Standards  Based  on  Gross  Weight 72 

Standards  Based  on  Total  Nutrients 73 

Standards 'Based  on  Digestible  Nutrients 73 

Standards  Based  on  Energy  Values 75 

A  Suitable  Standard 76 

Formulating  Rations 77 

IX.  The  Balance  of  Nutrients 81 

^ge 83 

Size 83 

Condition 84 

Yield  of  Milk 85 

Quality  of  Milk 85 

Stage  of  Lactation 86 

Individuality  of  the  Cow 86 

X.  Characteristics  of  a  Good  Ration 88 

Palatability 88 

Variety ^2 

Bulk 94 

Succulence 06 

Effect  upon  the  Sj-stem q6 

Efifect  upon  the  Products 97 


CONTEXTS 


PART  IV 
THE  FEEDING  STUFFS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XI.  Silage loi  i/^ 

Corn  Silage loi  cX 

Other  Silage  Crops io8 

Non-leguminous io8 

Leguminous 109 

Mixed 1 10 

XII.  Soiling  Crops in 

Leguminous in 

Alfalfa Ill 

Clovers 112 

Sweet  Clover 113 

Peas 1 13 

Vetches 114 

Cowpeas 1 14 

Soybeans > 114 

Non-leguminous 115 

Corn 115 

Sweet  Com 115 

Lesser  Cereals 115 

Millets 116 

Sudan  Grass 117 

Amber  Cane 117 

Other  Sorghums 118 

Grasses 118 

Rape 1 19 

Mixed 119 

Pea  Mixtures 119 

Vetch  Mixtures 120 

Cowpea  JMixtures 1 20 

Soybean  Mixtures 1 20 

XIII.  Miscellaneous  Succulent  Roughages 121 

Pasture 121 

Root  Crops 124 

Beet  Pulp 125 

Potatoes 1 26 

Pumpkins 127     ^ 

XIV.  Dry  Roughages 128 

Leguminous 128 

Alfalfa  Hay 129 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Clover  Hays 130 

Sweet-clover  Hay 131 

Field-pea  Hay 131 

Cowpea  Hay 131 

Soybean  Hay 132 

Leguminous  Straws 132 

Non-leguminous 132 

Corn  Fodder 133 


Corn  Stover. 


133 


Cereal  Straws 133 

Timothy  Hay 133 

Sudan-grass  Hay 133 

The  Sorghums 133 

The  Millets 134 

Buckwheat  Straw 134 

Flax  Straw 


Mixed. 


134 

135 

Mixed  Hay 135 

Oat  and  Pea  Hay 135 

XV.  The  Cereal  Grains  and  Their  By-products 136 

Corn  and  Its  by-products 136 

Corn  Preparations 138 

Ear  Corn 1 39 

Shelled  Corn 139 


Cracked  Corn. 


C39 


Corn  Meal 139 

Corn-and-cob  Meal 140 

Com  By-products 140 

Hominy  Feed 140 

Germ-oil  Meal 141 

Corn  Bran     141 

Gluten  Meal 141 

Gluten  Feed 142 

Corn  Distillers'  Grains 142 

Oats  and  Their  By-products 142 

Oats 143 

Oat  By-products 143 

Wheat  and  Its  By-products 143 

Wheat 144 

Wheat  Bran 144 

Wheat  Middlings 144 

Flour-wheat  Middlings 145 

Red  Dog  Flour 145 


V  CONTENTS 

A.PTER  PAGE 

Barley  and  Its  By-Products 145 

Barley 145 

Barley  Bran  and  Barley  Shorts 146 

Malt  Sprouts 146 

Brewers'  Grains 146 

Rye  and  Its  By-products 147 

Rice  and  Its  By-products 147 

The  Sorghums 148 

The  Millets 149 

XVI.  The  Legumes,  the  Oil  Seeds,  and  Their  Bv-PRODrrTS. .  .  .  150 

Peas 1 50 

Cowpeas 151 

Beans 151 

Soybeans 151 

Peanuts 152 

Cottonseed  and  Its  By-products 153 

Cottonseed 1 54 

Cottonseed  Hulls 155 

Cottonseed  Meal 155 

Cottonseed  Feed 1 56 

Cold-pressed  Cottonseed  Cake 156 

Flaxseed  and  Its  By-products 157 

Flaxseed 157 

Linseed-oil  Meal 157 

Coconut  Meal 159 

Palmnut  Meal 1 59 

XVII.  Miscellaneous  Concentrates 160 

Buckwheat  and  Its  By-products 160 

Molasses 1 60 

Dairy  Products 161 

Whole  Milk 161 

Skim  Milk 162 

Buttermilk 162 

Whey 162 

Dried  Dairy  Products 162 

Packing-house  By-products 163 

Tankage 1 63 

Blood  Meal 1 63 

Fishery  By-products 163 

Fish  Meal 163 

Whale  Meal 164 

Proprietary  Feeds 164 

Standard  Feeds 164 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Mixed  Concentrates 164 

Alfalfa-molasses  Feeds 165 

Peat-molasses  Feeds 1 6 5 

Fillers 167 

Tonic  Feeds j68 


PART  V 

FEEDING   PRACTICE 

171 

XIX.  Summer  Milk  Production i^p 


XVIII.  General  Feeding  Consideration 


XX.  Silage  versus  Soilage '  jg2 

Advantages  of  Silage 182 

Feeding  Economy 182 

Labor-saving ^82 


Feed  Reserve 


83 


Disadvantages  of  Silage 18^ 

Lack  of  Variety 18^ 

Necessity  of  Small  Silo 184 

Advantages  of  Soilage 184 

Intensity  of   Production 184 

Small  Initial  Outlay 185 

Variety  in  the  Ration 186 

Disadvantages  of  Soilage 186 

Labor  Requirements j86 

Succession  of  Succulence 187 

Silage  or  Soilage j88 

The  Soiling  Problem jgj 

Production  of  Soiling  Crops igi 

Feeding  of  Soiling  Crops 1^2 

Practical  Soiling  .Systems 1Q4 

XXI.  Winter  Milk  Production jg5 

200 


XXII.  Preparation  of  the  Cow  for  Production. 


The  Dry  Cow 200 

The  Cow  Immediately  before  Parturition 201 

The  Cow  Immediately  after  Parturition 203 

XXIII.  Feeding  for  Records 20c 

Fitting 20s 

Short-time  Tests 205 

Long-time  Tests 207 

Feeding  During  Record  Period 208 


XVI  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Short-time  Tests 208 

Long-time  Tests 210 

Feeding  for  a  High  Fat  Percentage 210 

XXIV.  Calf-raising 212 

Early  Treatment 212 

Teaching  to  Drink 213 

Fundamental  Principles  in  Hand-feeding 214 

Whole-milk  Period 215 

Skim-milk  Period 216 

Use  of  Other  Dairy  By-products 216 

Buttermilk 216 

Whey 216 

Dried  Products 217 

Milk  Supplements  and  Substitutes 217 

Miscellaneous  Feeds 218 

Grain 218 

Hay 221 

Silage 223^  ^ 

Roots 223 

Pasture 223 

Water 224 

Salt 224 

Condiments 224 

XXV.  Feeding  Dry  Stock 225 

The  Growing  Heifer 225 

Bulls 227 

XXVI.  Feeding  for  Show  and  Sale 229 

Early  Preparation 230 

Final  Fitting 231 

XXVII.  Water  and  Salt 233 

Water 233 

Salt 235 

XXVIII.  Feeding  Methods 237 

Order  of  Feeding 237 

Feeding  of  Roughages 238^ 

Feeding  of  Concentrates 238  L^ 

Preparation  of  Feeds 240 

Grinding 24c 

Chopping 241 

Soaking 241 

Cooking 242 

XXIX.  Feeding  Economy 243 

Individual  Feeding 243 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Liberal  Feeding 245 

Use  of  Home-grown  Feeds 246 

The  Protein  Supply 247 

Choice  of  Protein  Supplements 247 

XXX.  Digestive  Disturbances 250 

Calves 250 

Constipation 251 

Indigestion 251 


Bloat. 


251 


Common  Scours 252 

Mature  Stock 253 

Indigestion 253 


Bloat. 


253 


Impaction 256 

PART  VI 

APPENDICES 

I.  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Feeds 259 

II.  A  Feeding  Standard  for  Dairy  Cows 263 

III.  Mineral  Elements  in  Feeds 265 

rV.  Relative  Economy  of  Protein  Supplements 267 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Dairy  Herd  and  Barns  at  Iowa  State  College Frontispiece 

Imp.   Jewel's   Guernsey   Lily Dedication 

FIG.  PAGE 

I.  Scrub  Cow  No.  60 5 

II.  Half-blood  Holstein  Cow  No.  207  Out  of  Scrub  No.  60 5 

III.  Three-quarter-blood    Holstein    Cow   No.    311    Out    of    Half-blood 

Holstein  No.  207 6 

IV.  Scrub  Cow  No.  53 8 

V.  Half-blood  Guernsey  Cow  No.  180  Out  of  Scrub  No.  53 9 

VI.  Half-blood  Guernsey  Cow  No.  253  Out  of  Scrub  No.  53 9 

VII.  Scrub  Cow  No.  6  on  Arrival  at  Iowa  State  College 16 

VIII.  Scrub  Cow  No.  6  Three  Years  Later 16 

IX.  A  Good,  Well-shaded  Pasture  is  One  of  the  Greatest  Assets  of  a 

Dairy  Farm 1 23 

X.  Robinhood    Cavalier   Lass,    Showing    Condition    Desired   at    the 

Beginning  of  a  Lactation  Period 202 

XL  Miss  of  St.  Louis  II,  in  Good  Working  Condition  when  the  Lacta- 
tion is  Well  Started 204 

XII.  The  Foundation  of  Production 213 

XIII.  lowana  Mercedes  Homestead  in  Working  Condition 227 


PART   I 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF 
DAIRYING 


THE   FEEDING   OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


CHAPTER   I 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  COW  AS  THE  UNIT  IN  PROFIT- 
ABLE   DAIRYING 

A  STUDY  of  any  herd  of  cows,  unless  they  have  been  very 
carefully  selected,  will  show  that  in  addition  to  wide  dififer- 
ences  in  conformational  characteristics  there  are  large  indi- 
vidual variations  not  only  in  total  milk  and  butter  fat 
production  but  also  in  economy  of  production.  The  aim  of 
the  dairyman  is  to  obtain  a  herd  of  cows  combining  con- 
formational excellence  with  economical  production  and,  as 
the  causes  of  the  large  individual  variations  which  occur  in 
production  are  fundamental,  they  must  be  given  consideration 
before  the  feeding  problem  can  be  studied  in  a  satisfactory 


BREEDING 

It  is  frequently  stated  that  the  breeding  of  a  cow  is  very 
largely  responsible  for  her  inherent  ability  to  produce  milk 
and  butterfat.  That  this  is  true  to  a  very  considerable 
degree  has  been  shown  in  a  breeding  experiment  at  Iowa  State 


4  THE   INDRIDUAL   COW   AS   A    UXIT 

College.  Scrub  cows  of  no  known  breeding  and  of  very  low 
producing  ability  were  mated  to  pure-bred  bulls  of  the 
Guernsey,  Holstein  and  Jersey  breeds  and  each  heifer  resulting 
from  such  a  mating  was  bred  back  to  a  bull  of  the  same 
breed  as  her  sire.  Records  are  now  available  on  two  genera- 
tions of  grades  descended  from  the  original  scrub  cows  of 
the  experiment  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  first  gen- 
eration grades  produced  on  the  average  39  per  cent  more 
milk  and  38  per  cent  more  fat  than  their  scrub  dams,  while 
the  increases  in  the  case  of  the  second  generation  grades,  as 
compared  with  the  scrubs,  was  117  per  cent  in  milk  and  105 
per  cent  in  butter  fat. 

This  shows  the  influence  breeding  has  on  production,  and 
demonstrates  that  the  use  of  good  bulls  can  do  much  to 
increase  production,  as  the  yield  of  butter  fat  was  raised 
from  an  average  of  185.18  pounds  per  year  in  the  case  of  the 
scrubs  to  379.31  pounds  per  year  in  the  case  of  the  second 
generation  of  grades. 


TABLE  I 


Average  Production  of  Two  Generations  of  Grades  and  Their 
Scrub  Ancestors 


Dams 

Daughters 

Grand-daughters 

Group 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Holstein 

3673-8 
4158.6 
4046 . 7 

167.36 
190.77 
193-91 

6697-3 
4786.4 
4933-4 

277.27 
237.22 
265.88 

10,209.2 
7,426.7 
5.659-4 

398.63 
380.16 
298.94 

Guernsey 

Jersey 

Average 

3912-3 

185,18 

5492.5 

266.69 

8,507.0 

379-31 

Fig.  I. — Scrub  Cow  No.  60,  Average  Production  3313.2  Pounds  of  Milk  and 
178.47  Pounds  of  Fat. 


Fig.  II.— Half-blood  Hol>uiii  (m.,    X,  .    :  .7    Oui  n\  .>,  lub  Xu.  Oo.    Average 
Production  6306.2  Pounds  of  Milk  and  2S7.74  Pounds  of  Fat. 


THE  IXDIMDUAL   COW  AS  A  UMT 


Fig.  III.— Three-quarter-blood  Holstein  Cow  No.  311,  Out  of  Half-blood 
Holstein  No.  207.  Average  Production  10,428.3  Pounds  of  Milk  and 
460.73  Poiuids  of  Fut. 

TABLE   II 

Average  Increase  in  Production  of  Two  Generations  of  Grades 
Over  Their  Scrub  Ancestors 


Increase  in  Production  0\t=r  Scrub 
Ancestors 

Group 

First  Generation 

Second  Generation 

Milk, 
Per  Cent 

Fat, 
Per  Cent 

Milk, 
Per  Cent 

Fat, 
Per  Cent 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

15 
82 
22 

24 
65 
37 

79 
178 
40 

99 
138 
54 

Jersey 

Average                              .... 

40 

44 

117 

105 

SELECTION  7 

Since  breeding  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  pro- 
duction, great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  breeding 
herds,  and  this  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  the  bulls  to  be 
used.  No  herd  of  cows  should  be  headed  by  anything  but  a 
pure-bred  bull,  and  some  pure-bred  bulls  are  not  good  enough 
to  head  even  a  scrub  herd. 

TABLE  in 
A  Comparison  of  Two  Guernsey  Bulls 


Bulls 

Average 

Records  of 

Dams 

Average 
Records  of 
Daughters 

Increase  in 
Production 
Over  Dams 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Per  Cent 

Fat, 
Per  Cent 

"Fullwood  Hopeful"  . .  . 
Imp.  Rouge  II's  Son.  .  .  . 

3885.2 
4295 -6 

169.99 
194  05 

4045 • I 
5360.1 

172.58 
275.81 

4 

25 

2 

43 

The  two  pure-bred  Guernsey  buhs,  "Fullwood  Hopeful" 
and  Imp.  Rouge  II's  Son,  were  used  in  the  breeding  work  just 
mentioned,  and  although  they  were  both  of  excellent  breeding 
the  results  they  produced  were  very  different.  The  daughters 
of  "Fullwood  Hopeful"  produced  only  4  per  cent  more  milk 
and  2  per  cent  more  butter  fat  than  their  dams,  so  that  this 
bull  can  be  considered  useless;  while  Imp.  Rouge  II's  Son  sired 
heifers  producing  on  the  average  25  per  cent  more  milk  and 
43  per  cent  more  fat  than  their  dams.  This  emphasizes  the 
importance  of  care  in  the  selection  of  a  herd  sire. 


SELECTION 


Though  breeding  has  a  profound  influence  on  production, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  even  when  the  ancestry  of  a  cow 
is  definitely  known  her  ability  to  produce  milk  and  butter  fat 


8 


THE  IXDmDUAL  COW  AS  A  UNIT 


cannot  be  accurately  foretold.  This  is  very  clearly  demon- 
strated by  the  case  of  two  grade  Guernsey  cows  in  the  Iowa 
State  College  experimental  herd.  These  cows  were  sired  by 
the  pure-bred  Guernsey  bull,  Imp.  Rouge  II's  Son,  and  were 
out  of  a  scrub  cow  of  no  known  breeding. 


Fig.  IV. — Scrub  Cow  No.  53.  Average  Production  5258.7  Pounds  of  Milk  and 
233.63  Pounds  of  Fat. 


Table  IV 
Production  of  a  Scrub  Cow  and  Her  Two  Gr.-vde  Daughters 


Cow 

A\-ERAGE  Production 

Increase  in 
Production 
0\ER  Dam 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Per  Cent 

Fat, 
Per  Cent 

Scrub  Xo      ^  7. 

5258.9 
3639.0 
6128.4 

233.69 
180.53 
298.33 

-31 
17 

Grade  No.  180 

Grade  No.  253 

-23 
28 

SELECTION 


Fig.  V. — Half-blood  Guernsey  Cow  No.  i8o,  Out  of  Scrub  No.  53.    Average 

Production  3641.5  Pounds  of  IVIilk  and  180.53  Pounds  of  Fat. 


Fic.  \1.— Half-blood  (iurrn.i  >■  (',,•,,-  Xm.  25;,,  Out  of  Scrub  X-.  5,-;  and  Full 
Sister  to  Half-blood  Guernsey  No.  180.  Average  Production  6168.2 
Pounds  of  Milk  and  306.40  Pounds  of  Fat. 


10 


THE   TXDTMDrAT,    C(^\V    AS    A   l-XIT 


The  two  animals,  Xo.  iSo  and  No.  25^^,  though  full  sisters, 
varied  widely  in  producing  ability,  Xo.  180  producing  31 
per  cent  less  milk  and  23  per  cent  less  fat  than  her  scrub  dam, 
while  No.  253  produced  17  per  cent  more  milk  and  28  per  cent 
more  fat  than  did  her  dam.  This  is  a  wide  variation  in 
production  and  might  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  dam 
of  the  cows  being  considered  w-as  a  scrub  and  consequently 
would  tend  to  produce  daughters  of  doubtful  producing 
ability. 

It  is  true  that  the  results  obtained  in  the  mating  of  scrubs 
are  more  doubtful  and  vary  more  than  those  obtained  where 
pure  breds  which  have  been  carefully  selected  for  generations 
are  concerned;  but  similar  results  are  obtained,  though  less 
frequently,  with  pure-bred  animals. 

TABLE  V 

PROOrCTIOX   OF   A   Px-RE-BRF.D    GUKRXSKY    CoW    AXD   HeR    DAUGHTERS 


Cow  No. 

A\ER.\GE    PrODUCTIOX 

IXCREASE    IX    PrODUCTIOX 

0\-ER  Dam 

Milk,  Pounds 

Fat,  Pounds 

Milk.  Per  Cent 

Fat,  Per  Cent 

98 
225 

267 

7258.7 
6213.0 

0772.8 

294.87 
294.16 
473.38 

-14 
35 

0 
61 

Here  the  same  wide  difference  in  producing  ability  between 
the  two  pure-bred  cows,  Nos.  225  and  267,  even  though  the\ 
were  full  sisters  sired  by  Imp.  Rouge  II's  Son,  is  noticed  as 
was  found  in  the  case  of  the  grades.  But  this  might  be 
attributed  to  the  bull  used;  another  pure-bred  bull  may  there- 
fore be  considered. 


SELECTION 


11 


He  is  the  Jersey  bull,  Pogis  8oth  of  Hood  Farm,  and  he 
sired  two  heifers  out  of  a  pure-bred  Jersey  cow,  No.  127  in 
the  Iowa  State  College  herd. 


TABLE  VI 

Production  of  a  Pure-bred  Jersey  Cow  and  Her  Daitohters 


Cow  No. 

Average  Production 

Increase  in  Production 
Over  Dam 

Milk,  Pounds 

Fat,  Pounds 

Milk,  Per  Cent 

Fat,  Per  Cent 

127 
194 
223 

8190.5 
3345-3 
7837 -ft 

382.92 
175.68 
419.89 

-59 

—    4 

-54 
10 

Here  it  is  seen  that  in  one  case  the  production  of  the  heifer 
was  above  that  of  her  dam,  while  in  the  other  case  there  was 
a  very  marked  difference,  and  in  both  cases  the  milk  yield 
for  the  heifers  was  lower  than  for  their  dam.  This  clearly 
shows  that  there  are  wide  individual  differences  in  the  pro- 
ducing abiUty  of  animals  of  the  same  breeding. 

Where  a  consistent  system  of  breeding  has  been  pursued 
for  some  time  the  chances  of  a  decrease  in  production  with 
each  succeeding  generation  are  less,  but  at  the  same  time  it 
should  be  remembered  that  when  a  high  level  of  production 
has  been  reached  in  a  herd  it  is  more  difficult  to  increase  the 
average  production  than  it  is  in  the  case  of  a  poor  herd. 
Rigid  selection  of  the  sires  is  needed  in  such  cases,  as  is  clearly 
demonstrated  by  a  comparison  of  two  Jersey  bulls  used  at 
Iowa  State  College. 

Fox's  Lad  o'  Dreamwold  was  a  detriment  to  the  herd,  as 
his  daughters  produced  18  per  cent  less  fat  than  their  dams, 


12 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  COW  AS  A  UNIT 


while  Pogis  8oth  of  Hood  Farm  increased  the  average  pro- 
duction of  the  herd  by  12  per  cent  m  fat  yield. 


TABLE  vn 

Comparison  of  Pure-bred  Dauchters  of  Two  Jersey  Bulls 


Bulls 

Average 

Production 

OF  Dams 

Average 

Production 

OF  Daughters 

Increase  m 
Production 
0\T,R  Dams 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Per  Cent 

Fat, 
Per  Cent 

Fox's  Lad  o'  Dreamwold. 
Pogis  80th  of  Hood  Farm 

7667.9 
7280.4 

356.30 
343-25 

6005.0 
7300.2 

200 . 84 
385-92 

—  22 
0 

-18 
12 

In  breeding,  and  especially  in  the  case  of  pure-bred  animals, 
the  problem  of  "nicking"  must  be  given  consideration. 
Some  animals,  even  when  capable  of  producing  good  offspring, 
will  not  give  good  results  even  when  mated  with  individuals 
that  are  also  good.  This  is  most  frequently  found  in  the  case 
of  pure  breds  of  dissimilar  breeding,  while  good  animals  of 
similar  breeding  will  generally  "nick"  well  and  give  good 
results. 

This  lesson  can  again  be  clearly  shown  from  the  breeding 
record  of  the  Guernsey  bull,  Imp.  Rouge  II's  Son.  In  stud}- 
ing  these  records  it  is  found  that  Imp.  Rouge  II's  Son  was 
mated  to  two  cows  with  average  records  below  three  hundred 
pounds  of  fat  per  year  and  three  cows  with  an  average 
production  over  this  amount.  It  is  found  that  the  daughters 
of  the  high-producing  cows  were  in  every  case  poorer  pro- 
ducers than  their  dams,  and  at  first  sight  this  might  con- 
demn the  bull  as  being  unfit  to  mate  with  cows  of  this 
producing    ability.     However,    when    the    other    individuals 


SELECTION 


13 


are  studied  it  is  evident  that  the  daughters  of  the  poor  pro- 
ducers were  not  only  better  than  their  dams  but  also  better 
than  either  the  daughters  of  the  good  producers  or  the  good 
producers  themselves.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  bull 
under  consideration  "nicked"  well  with  some  of  the  cows  but 
did  not  "nick"  with  the  others.  In  selecting  a  breeding  herd 
it  is  difficult  to  tell  whether  or  not  the  sire  desired  will  "nick" 
with  the  foundation  cows;  however,  attention  to  the  results 
that  have  been  obtained  with  animals  of  similar  breeding  will 
frequently  be  of  great  value  as  a  guide  in  the  selection  of  the 
herd  sire. 


TABLE  VIII 
"Nicking"  as  Demonstrated  in  the  Case  of  Imp.  Rouge  II's  Son 


Average  Production 
OF  Dams 

Average  Production 
OF  Daughters 

Increase  in 
Production 
Ov'ER  Dams 

Cow  No. 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Cow 
No. 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Per  Cent 

Fat, 
Per  Cent 

97 
98 

5288.9 
7258.7 

229.42 
294-87 

247 
286 
322 
225 
267 

8385.4 
8309 -3 
8908. 5 
6213.0 
9772.8 

400 . 58 
394   74 
470.70 
294.16 
473-38 

57 
57 
68 
—  14 
35 

75 

73 

105 

0 

61 

Average.  .  . 

6305-5 

264.27 

8019.2 

388.42 

27 

47 

123 
1S6 
187 

6326.9 
6854.9 
8328.7 

322.22 
312.41 
365-19 

292 
254 
226 

5546.8 
5264.5 
6650.3 

271.79 
282.71 
335-46 

—  12 

-23 

—  20 

-16 
— 10 
-   8 

Average.  . . 

7303-6 

336-14 

5875-3 

301.62 

—  20 

—  10 

Grand 

Average. 

6631.0 

286.98 

7253-5 

357-43 

9 

25 

14  THE   INDIVIDUAL   COW   AS   A   UNIT 

The  breeding  of  a  cow  determines,  to  a  very  considerable 
extent,  her  producing  ability,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  for  best  results  the  breeding  stock  must  be  carefully 
selected.  Then  some  level  of  production  should  be  aimed 
at,  and  individuals  faihng  to  come  up  to  this  should  be  dis- 
posed of,  as  there  will  always  be  a  few  culls  produced  even  in 
a  well-bred  herd,  though  the  number  will  be  fewer  than  in  a 
herd  of  scrubs  or  grades.  It  is  only  by  disposing  of  such  cows 
that  the  production  of  a  herd  can  be  increased  or  even  main- 
tained at  a  definite  level.  The  individual  cow  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  profitable  dairying  and  only  good  produc- 
ing cows  should  be  maintained. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   IMPORTANCE   OF  FEEDING 

A  GOOD  COW  is  essential  for  profitable  milk  production,  but 
before  the  cow  can  work  efficiently,  her  needs  for  the  materials 
from  which  milk  is  produced  must  be  met.  The  cow  pro- 
duces milk;  but  she  must  be  supplied  with  the  raw  materials, 
in  the  form  of  feed,  from  which  the  milk  is  produced.  The 
individual  cow  is  the  most  important  factor  to  be  considered 
by  the  dairjonan,  and  ranking  closely  to  this  problem  is  the 
consideration  of  feeding. 

LIBERAL  FEEDING  ESSENTIAL 

Feeding  costs  money ;  and  too  many  endeavor  to  reduce  the 
cost  of  milk  production  by  stinting  the  feed  of  their  cows. 
This  is  not  good  economy,  as  without  the  feed  the  cows  cannot 
produce  the  milk,  and  the  lower  the  milk  and  butter  fat  yield 
the  greater  the  cost  of  production  per  unit  of  product,  as  a 
general  rule. 

The  economy  of  liberal  feeding  has  been  clearly  pointed  out 
in  the  work  conducted  at  Iowa  State  College  with  the  scrub 
cows  already  mentioned,  and  the  advantages  of  such  a  system 
are  clearly  seen  from  the  records  of  two  cows  that  reached 
the  Station  when  they  were  four  years  of  age. 

The  scrub  cows  had  been  subject  to  very  poor  care  and  had 

rustled  most  of  their  feed,  but  when  they  were  given  good 

feed  and  care  in  the  College  Herd  they  increased  in  production 

from  their  first  year.     Unfortunately,  no  records  are  available 

15 


16 


THE  IIMPORTANCE   OF   FEEDING 


VTI      ^ 

Annual  i'ro 


N  )  6  on  \rn\  il  it  low  i  St  ilc  Colkgc  at  4  \Larsof  Age. 
moil  2586.4  Pounds  of  Milk  and  137-94  Pounds  of  Fat. 


Fig.  VIII.— Scrub  Cow  No.  6  at  7  Years  of  Age.     Annual  Production  5468.7 
Pounds  of  Milk  and  244.79  Pounds  of  Fat. 


LIBERAL   FEEDING   ESSENTIAL 


17 


as  to  the  milk  and  butter  fat  they  produced  under  their  former 
conditions.  In  their  fourth  lactation  at  the  Station  they  were 
producing,  on  the  average,  4907.7  pounds  of  milk  and  229.91 
pounds  of  fat,  or  59  per  cent  more  milk  and  54  per  cent  more 
fat  than  during  their  first  lactation  period.     It  is  known 

TABLE  IX 

Average  Production  of  Scrubs  put  on  Good  Feed 
AT  Four  Years  of  Age 


Average  Production 

Increase  in  Production 
Over  First  Lactation 

Lactation 

Age, 
Years 

No. 

Milk, 

Fat, 

Milk, 

Fat, 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

I 

4 

3084 . 6 

149-24 

2 

5 

3984-4 

178 

97 

29 

19 

3 

6 

4618. I 

217 

79 

50 

46 

4 

7 

4907 • 7 

229 

91 

59 

54 

5 

8 

4224.0 

197 

59 

37 

32 

6 

9 

1991-3 

84 

76 

-35 

-43 

7 

10 

2862.5 

^33 

70 

-   7 

—  10 

8 

II 

2296.2 

93 

83 

-26 

-36 

that  as  cows  mature  they  increase  in  production,  but  the 
increase  that  could  be  attributed  to  the  aging  of  the  animals 
from  four  to  seven  years  would,  on  the  average,  be  only 
10  per  cent  in  milk  and  8  per  cent  in  fat.  The  major  portion 
of  the  increase  obtained  in  this  experiment  must,  therefore, 
be  attributed  to  feeding. 


18 


THE   IMPORTANCE  OF   FEEDING 


BEGINNING  WITH  THE  YOUNG  STOCK 

With  these  four-year-old  cows  there  were  some  cows  past 
their  prime  and  a  few  immature  heifers.  A  comparison  of 
these  three  groups  brings  out  another  important  point. 

TABLE  X 
Comparison  of  Scrubs  Subjected  to  Good  Conditions  at  Different  Ages 


Group 

Average 
Production 

Increase  in 

Production 

Over  Mature  Cows 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Per  Cent 

Fat, 
Per  Cent 

3168.7 
3597-7 
4036 . I 

153-64 
166.36 
191. 21 

14 

27 

8 

Heifers 

24 

In  making  this  comparison,  allowance  has  been  made  for 
the  age  at  which  the  records  were  made.  It  is  found  that  the 
cows  which  had  been  kept  under  poor  conditions  until  they 
reached  maturity  and  had  then  been  subjected  to  good  treat- 
ment had  the  lowest  average  production;  those  that  were 
put  under  good  care  at  four  years  of  age  were  the  next  best; 
while  those  that  had  been  liberally  fed  from  the  time  they 
were  calves  gave  the  most  milk  and  butter  fat,  or  27  per  cent 
more  milk  and  24  per  cent  more  fat  than  was  produced  by 
the  group  kept  under  poor  conditions  till  maturity  was 
reached. 

Liberal  feeding  during  the  lactation  period  of  a  cow  is 
essential,  but  just  as  important  is  the  feeding  of  the  dry 
stock  and  especially  the  growing  heifers.  If  heifer  calves  that 
are  being  grown  out  to  take  their  places  in  the  herd  are 


NECESSITY   OF   INDIVIDUAL   FEEDING  19 

poorly  fed,  they  can  not  give  the  best  results  when  they  come 
to  producing  age.  The  potential  dairy  cow  must  be  liberally 
fed  from  birth. 

NECESSITY   OF  INDIVIDUAL  FEEDING 

The  individual  cow  is  the  unit  in  profitable  dairying,  and 
the  most  important  factor,  in  addition  to  the  inherent  ability 
of  the  cow  to  produce,  is  feeding.  As  a  consequence,  the 
feed  requirements  of  each  individual  cow  in  the  herd  must 
be  considered  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  The 
abiUty  of  the  cow  to  produce  and  her  feed  requirements  are 
very  closely  associated. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  animals  of  the  same  or  similar 
breeding  and  reared  under  identical  conditions  will  not  always 
be  alike  in  producing  ability  when  they  reach  maturity. 
Several  illustrations  of  this  have  already  been  given.  The 
reasons  for  this  were  not  understood  until  work  was  conducted 
at  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  in  an  attempt  to  elucidate 
the  problem. 

At  the  outset  it  was  recognized  that  this  individual  varia- 
tion in  producing  ability  might  be  due  to  one  or  more  of  the 
following  factors:  variation  in  the  digestive  powers  of  the 
animals ;  difference  in  the  quantities  of  feed  required  for  body 
maintenance;  utilization  of  part  of  the  ration  for  the  pro- 
duction of  body  fat ;  difference  in  the  amount  of  feed  actually 
used  in  addition  to  that  required  for  maintenance. 

Two  Jersey  cows  which  were  a  little  more  than  half  sisters 
and  of  about  the  same  age  were  used.  Previously  they  had 
received  the  same  treatment,  though  one  had  proved  to  be  a 
much  better  producer  than  the  other.  A  complete  record 
of  the  feed  consumption  of  the  animals  was  kept;  the  rations 
fed  were  of  the  same  composition  but  were  varied  in  quantity 
to  suit  the  needs  of  the  individuals.  Exact  records  of  the 
yields  and  composition  of  the  milk  were  obtained. 


20 


THE   IMPORTANCE   OE   EEEDING 


The  animals  were  kept  barren  and  at  uniform  weight 
throughout  the  experiment.  At  the  period  of  maximum  pro- 
duction, digestion  trials  were  conducted,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  lactation  period  maintenance  trials  were  made,  the  feed 
used  being  the  same  in  composition  as  that  used  during  the 
lactation  period.  The  ration  consisted  of  corn  silage,  alfalfa 
hay  and  a  grain  mixture  made  up  of  four  parts  ground  corn, 
two  parts  wheat  bran  and  one  part  oil  meal ;  during  a  portion 
of  the  trial  some  green  feed  was  also  given. 

As  the  animals  were  maintained  at  a  uniform  weight  the 
difiference  in  production  could  not  have  been  due  to  the 
production  of  body  fat  by  the  inferior  producer,  and  likewise 
it  was  found  that  the  differences  in  digestive  powers  and 
maintenance  requirements  were  too  small  to  account  for  the 
large  differences  in  milk  and  butter-fat  yields. 


TABLE  XI 


Feed  Consumption  and  Milk  and  Butter  fat  Production  of  Two  Cows 
OF  Varying  Producing  Ability 


Cow  No 

Total  production: 

Milk 

Fat 

Total  feed  consumed: 

Grain 

Hay 

Silage 

Green  feed 

Feed  used  for  production: 

Grain 

Hay 

Silage 

Green  feed 


Pounds 

3189 

169 


1907 
1698 
50cS8 
2102 


841 
632 
796 


NECESSITY   OF   INDIVIDUAL   FEEDING  21 

The  total  feed  consumption  of  the  two  animals  varied 
widely,  but  their  maintenance  requirements  varied  little. 
So  when  the  feed  needed  for  maintenance  is  deducted  from  the 
total  amount  consumed  there  is  found  to  be  a  very  wide  dif- 
ference in  the  amounts  of  feed  available  for  productive 
purposes. 

The  ratio  between  the  milk  produced  by  the  two  cows 
was  I  :  2.67,  and  for  the  butter-fat  production  it  was  i  :  2.77, 
which  coincided  very  closely  with  the  ratio  between  the 
various  amounts  of  feed  actually  used  for  milk  production. 
This  clearly  shows  that  the  good  producing  cow  is  simply 
the  one  that  uses  a  large  amount  of  feed,  in  addition  to  that 
needed  for  maintenance  purposes,  and  utilizes  it  for  milk  and 
butter-fat  production. 

The  problem  of  the  feeder,  therefore,  is  to  provide  the  cow 
with  the  maximum  amount  of  feed,  in  addition  to  what  she 
requires  for  other  purposes.  She  will  convert  this  additional 
amount  of  feed  into  milk  and  butter  fat,  and  the  greater  the 
amount  of  feed  used  for  this  purpose,  the  more  economical 
will  be  the  production  of  the  cow. 


PART  IT 
THE   CHEMISTRY   OF   FEEDING 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  ELEMENTARY   COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDS 

In  a  consideration  of  the  feeding  problem,  little  attention 
is,  as  a  rule,  given  to  the  individual  elements  which,  in  com- 
bination, form  the  complex  compounds  of  the  plant  and 
animal  tissues;  yet  the  science  of  chemistry  shows  that  all 
substances  are  ultimately  derived  from  the  simple  chemical 
elements.  The  feeding  stuffs  used  for  farm  animals  are  gener- 
ally vegetable  products,  though  a  few  animal  products,  such 
as  tankage  and  skim  milk,  are  utilized.  These  feeding  stuffs 
consist  of  complex  compounds,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  source 
of  these  compounds  is  of  value.  The  animal  elaborates  the 
constituents  of  its  body  from  the  compounds  existing  in  plants 
or  animal  products,  but  the  plants  used  as  sources  of  feeds 
must  elaborate  these  compounds  from  simpler  substances. 

As  will  be  noted  later,  the  carbohydrates,  fats,  proteins  and 
ash  are  the  main  constituents  derived  by  the  animal  from  the 
plant  products  it  consumes;  the  first  problem,  therefore,  is 
to  locate  the  source  from  which  the  plant  obtains  these 
substances.  The  plant  makes  them  from  the  elements  and 
from  some  simpler  compounds  elaborated  from  the  elements. 
A  very  large  number  of  elements  are  found  in  plants,  in  the 
form  of  compounds,  but  only  a  few  of  them  need  be  con- 
sidered, as  all  of  them  are  not  essential  for  animal  life. 

CARBON 

The  element,  carbon,  which  is  the  main  constituent  of  coal, 
and  in  the  practically  pure  state  forms  such  widely  different 
25 


26  THE   ELEjMENTARV    COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDS 

substances  as  tliamonds  and  lampljlack,  lonns  about  50  per 
cent  of  the  dry  matter  of  j)lants  and  animals.  It  occurs  in  the 
air  as  a  constituent  of  the  gas,  carbon  dioxide,  which  when 
present  in  appreciable  amounts  in  buildings  may  lead  to 
difficulties,  as  it  is  poisonous  to  animals. 

Green  plants  have  the  power  of  absorbing  this  carbon  diox- 
ide through  their  leaves  and  other  green  parts,  during  the 
hours  of  sunlight.  Then  the  green  coloring  matter,  chloro- 
phyll, which  is  present,  deriving  energy  from  the  sunlight, 
converts  this  carbon  dioxide  and  water  into  sugar  which  can 
be  carried  to  the  various  organs  of  the  plant  and  there  used 
for  a  variety  of  purposes.  During  this  process  oxygen  is 
given  ofT  by  the  plant.  In  addition,  the  plant  roots  in  the 
soil  take  up  water,  which  has  many  compounds  in  solution, 
among  them  carbonates  which  contain  carbon. 

HYDROGEN 

Hydrogen  occurs  in  the  free  state  as  one  of  the  gases  of  the 
air,  and  with  oxygen  it  forms  water.  The  main  source  of 
hydrogen  for  plants  is  the  water  taken  up  by  the  roots. 
Some  of  the  salts  in  solution  in  this  water  also  contain  hydro- 
gen. Like  carbon,  it  enters  into  the  composition  of  a  very 
large  number  of  compounds  occurring  in  the  various  tissues 
of  plants  and  animals. 

OXYGEN 

This  gaseous  element  is  most  familiar  as  one  of  the  most 
important  constituents  of  the  atmosphere  of  which  it  forms 
about  one-fifth.  Its  presence  there  is  essential  for  all  the 
higher  plants  and  animals.  It  is  also  one  of  the  constituents 
of  water.  The  plants  derive  some  of  it  from  the  air  through 
their  pores  and  also  obtain  a  large  amount  of  it  from  the  water 
absorbed  and  a  smaller  amount  from  some  of  the  compounds 
in  solution  in  the  water. 


NITROGEN  27 


NITROGEN 


About  four-fifths  of  the  air  is  nitrogen,  and  one  group  of 
plants,  the  legumes,  have  the  ability  to  use  this  atmospheric 
nitrogen  for  their  own  purposes.  Their  powers  of  utilizing 
this  nitrogen  are  due  to  the  presence  of  bacteria  in  the  nodules 
on  the  roots.  These  bacteria,  which  receive  some  of  their 
nutrients  from  the  legumes,  with  which  they  are  combined, 
take  the  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  the  soil  and  from  it  form 
compounds  which  can  be  utilized  by  the  legumes.  Other 
plants  do  not  have  this  power  and  so  are  dependent  for  their 
supply  of  nitrogen  on  the  nitrates  which  are  absorbed  in  solu- 
tion by  the  roots.  The  legumes  also  obtain  some  nitrogen 
in  this  manner.  Nitrogen  is  a  characteristic  constituent  of  the 
proteins  of  both  plants  and  animals. 

POTASSIUM 

The  element  potassium  is  not  known  in  the  free  state,  but 
its  compounds  are  common.  Some  of  the  most  familiar  are 
potassium  carbonate  and  caustic  potash.  Immense  deposits 
of  potassium  salts  are  known.  Potassium  salts  in  solution 
in  the  absorbed  water  form  the  only  source  of  supply  for 
plants.  This  holds  true  for  all  the  other  elements  which 
remain  to  be  mentioned,  and  which,  together  with  potassium, 
form  the  ash  or  inorganic  portion  of  the  plant. 

SODIUM 

This  element  is  also  unknown  in  the  free  state,  but  some 
of  its  compounds  are  very  well  known,  including  sodium 
chloride,  sodium  carbonate  and  sodium  bicarbonate,  which 
are  generally  recognized  as  common  salt,  washing  soda  and 
baking  soda.  The  salts  of  sodium  occur  in  large  deposits  and, 
like  those  of  potassium,  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  ma- 
terials in  solution  in  sea  water. 


28  THE  ele:\ientary  co:mposition  of  feeds 

CALCIUM 

Calcium  is  never  found  in  the  free  state,  but  occurs  in  large 
quantities  in  nature  as  calcium  carbonate  in  the  form  of  lime- 
stone and  chalk,  while  other  compounds  are  also  abundant. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  important  ash  constituents  so  far  as 
animal  nutrition  is  concerned,  as  it  is  a  large  component  of 
bone. 

MAGNESIUM 

Though  not  found  in  the  free  state,  magnesium  exists  in  the 
form  of  many  compounds  which  are  frequently  found  in 
conjunction  with  those  of  calcium.  It  is  not  so  plentiful  as 
calcium  in  the  ash  of  animals. 

IRON 

Iron  ores  are  very  abundant,  and  varying  amounts  of  iron 
compounds  are  universally  distributed  throughout  the  soils. 
Only  small  amounts  of  iron  are  found  in  the  free  state.  In 
addition  to  being  found  in  the  ash  of  plants  and  animals, 
iron  occurs  in  some  proteins  and  is  quite  characteristic  of 
some  of  the  compounds  of  the  blood. 

SULPHUR 

Though  most  generally  recognized  as  the  yellow  flowers  of 
sulphur,  this  element  occurs  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  free 
state.  Its  most  common  occurrence  is  in  such  compounds 
as  sulphates  and  sulphides,  which  are  quite  widely  distributed. 
Sulphur  is  also  found  in  some  proteins,  as  well  as  in  the 
ash  of  plants  and  animals. 

PHOSPHORUS 

Though  widely  distributed  in  combination  in  nature, 
phosphorus  is  never  found  free.     It  occurs  generally  in  the 


IODINE  29 

phosphates,  which  are  sometimes  found  in  large  deposits. 
Some  of  the  phosphates  of  calcium  may  be  taken  as  an 
illustration,  though  many  phosphates  are  widely  distributed. 
Phosphorus  occurs  in  some  proteins,  as  well  as  in  the  ash  of 
living  organisms. 

IODINE 

Iodine  never  occurs  in  the  free  state  in  nature,  though 
iodides  and  iodates,  especially  of  sodium  and  potassium,  are 
widely  known.  Iodine  is  best  known  in  the  crystalline  form, 
but  on  being  heated  it  forms  a  violet-colored  vapor  which 
crystallizes  on  cooling.  Compounds  of  iodine  are  common 
in  sea  water  and  many  sea  weeds  contain  relatively  large 
proportions  of  them.  In  other  plants  and  in  the  animal 
body,  iodine  compounds  occur  in  smaller  proportions,  though 
they  have  some  very  important,  though  poorly  understood, 
functions  to  perform  in  animal  metabohsm. 

CHLORINE 

The  greenish-yellow,  poisonous  gas,  chlorine,  does  not  occur 
free  in  nature.  Many  of  the  compounds,  into  the  formation 
of  which  it  enters,  are  well  known,  the  most  familiar  one 
being  common  salt,  or  sodium  chloride.  Chlorine  is  also  one 
of  the  constituents  of  hydrochloric  acid,  which  plays  an 
important  role  in  digestion. 

FLUORINE 

The  gas  fluorine  does  not  occur  free,  and  its  best-known 
compound  is  calcium  fluoride.  It  appears  to  derive  its  im- 
portance from  the  fact  that  it  occurs  in  small  amounts  in  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth. 


30  THE  ELEMENTARY  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS 

SILICON 

Silicon  never  occurs  in  the  free  state,  but  in  combination 
it  is,  perhaps,  with  the  possible  exception  of  oxygen,  the  most 
widely  distributed  element.  Its  most  common  compound  is 
silicon  oxide,  or  silica,  which  is  best  known  as  quartz  and, 
in  the  granular  condition,  as  sand.  In  the  form  of  silicates 
it  is  also  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of  the  clays. 
Though  of  no  known  importance  in  the  animal  body,  it  occurs 
to  some  extent  in  both  plants  and  animals. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE   CONSTITUENTS   OF  FEEDS 

Feeding  stuffs  arc  not  simple  substances,  but  complex 
mixtures  of  intricate,  though  definite,  chemical  compounds, 
and  as  it  is  the  utilization  of  these  substances  that  is  of 
importance  in  the  feeding  of  animals,  some  knowledge  of  their 
nature  is  essential.  In  studying  them  from  the  feeding  stand- 
point, however,  it  is  not  necessary  to  adhere  strictly  to  a 
chemical  discussion  of  the  feed  constituents;  it  is  better  to 
group  them  according  to  the  functions  which  they  perform  in 
the  animal  body. 

All  of  the  substances  found  in  feeding  stuffs  need  not 
necessarily  be  of  value  to  the  animals  consuming  the  feed, 
and  those  which  have  value  are  generally  grouped  together 
as  nutrients.  A  nutrient  may  be  stated  to  be  any  feed  con- 
stituent, or  group  of  feed  constituents  of  the  same  general 
chemical  composition,  that  may  aid  in  the  support  of  animal 
life.  Used  in  the  broadest  sense,  the  term  nutrient  would 
include  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  drinking  water,  as  they  are 
essential  to  animal  life,  though  their  general  abundance 
generally  excludes  them  from  discussion. 

The  feeding  stuffs  may  be  divided  into  water  and  dry  mat- 
ter, the  dry  matter  being  considered  the  more  important 
as  it  is  generally  more  expensive.  The  dry  matter  contains 
a  very  large  number  of  materials,  and  may  be  divided  into 
organic  matter  and  inorganic  matter,  or  ash.  The  latter  is 
generally  considered  as  a  whole,  while  the  other  substances 
included  in  the  term  dry  matter  are  grouped  according  to 

31 


32  THE   COXSTITITXTS   OF   FEEDS 

their  chemical  nature,  as  carbohydrates,  fats  and  proteins. 
The  terminologv"  used  in  feeding  work  is  not  always  free 
from  chemical  inexactitudes,  but  it  is  sufficient  when  con- 
sidering practical  problems. 

WATER 

Water  occurs  in  all  feeding  stufts  and  is  of  much  greater 
importance  than  is  generally  realized.  The  amount  of  it 
present  varies  very  considerably,  as  only  about  5  per  cent  of 
it  is  found  in  some  grains  and  hays,  while  it  may  constitute 
as  much  as  90  per  cent  of  some  roots.  Water  is  composed  of 
eight  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen  and  one  part  of  hydrogen. 

CARBOHYDRATES 

The  carbohydrates  form  a  very  large  group  of  compounds 
of  diverse  properties.  They  obtain  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  they  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  the 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  present  in  the  proportions  in  which 
they  occur  in  water.  This  definition  brings  in  a  few  sub- 
stances, such  as  acetic  acid,  which  are  not  carbohydrates. 
For  feeding  purposes  the  carbohydrates  are  div-ided  into  two 
main  groups,  the  crude  fiber,  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract. 
This  is  rather  a  vague  grouping,  but  is  quite  suitable  for 
practical  purposes. 

Crude  Fiber. — When  a  feed  is  boiled  with  dilute  acid  and 
then  with  dilute  alkah,  all  the  more  readily  soluble  sub- 
stances are  removed  and  the  residue  is  known  as  crude  fiber. 
This  portion  of  the  carbohydrate  group  is  not  a  simple  sub- 
stance; it  consists  of  the  woody,  more  insoluble  portions,  such 
as  the  cellulose  and  the  Hgnin  of  the  cell  walls  of  the  plant. 

Nitrogen-free  Extract. — The  nitrogen-free  extract  consists  of 
a  group  of  carbohydrates  of  similar  nature  and  value.  It  is  a 
very  poorly  defined  group,  as  is  shown  by  the  method  in  which 


FATS  33 

it  is  determined  in  the  chemical  examination  of  a  feed.  WTien 
all  of  the  other  main  groups  of  nutrients  have  been  determined, 
the  undetermined  portion  is  grouped  as  the  nitrogen-free 
extract.  Topical  examples  of  this  group  of  nutrients  are 
sugar,  starch  and  similar  compounds. 

FATS 

The  fats,  like  the  carbohydrates,  contain  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  but  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  not  in  the 
same  proportions  as  in  water.  The  true  fats  are  compounds 
of  glycerol  and  the  fatty  acids;  but  as  the  method  used  in 
determining  them  in  the  analysis  of  feeds  is  quite  crude, 
other  substances  are  generally  included  with  them.  To  de- 
termine the  amount  of  fat  in  a  feed  the  material  is  extracted 
with  ether,  and  as  the  resulting  extract  generally  contains 
waxes,  coloring  materials  and  other  substances  in  addition 
to  the  true  fats,  it  is  classed  as  ether  extract,  or  crude  fat. 
The  amounts  of  fat  present  in  the  different  feeding  stuffs  vary 
widely,  and  typical  examples  of  them  are  corn  oil  and  lin- 
seed oil. 

PROTEINS 

More  complex  in  composition  than  either  the  carbohydrates 
or  the  fats  are  the  proteins.  In  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  they  always  contain  nitrogen  and  sometimes 
sulphur,  phosphorus  and  iron.  Chemically  they  may  be 
looked  on  generally  as  compounds  containing  amino-acids. 
In  feed  analysis  the  method  of  arrixdng  at  the  amount  of  pro- 
tein present  is  to  determine  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  and 
multiply  this  by  6.25,  as  the  arfiount  of  nitrogen  in  the  various 
proteins  in  feeds  is  fairly  constant.  This  method  is  not  quite 
correct,  however,  as  it  also  takes  into  consideration  the 
nitrogen  present  in  some  non-protein  substances  which  will  be 
considered  later.     Where  the  protein  is  determined  in  this 


34  THE   CONSTITUENTS  OF   FEEDS 

way  it  is  called  crude  protein,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
actual  or  true  protein  present. 

So  far,  twenty-two  amino-acids  have  been  determined  in 
the  proteins  of  feeding  stuffs,  and  even  these  vary  greatly  in 
complexity.  In  addition  to  the  amino-acids,  other  chemical 
groupings  also  occur  in  some  of  the  more  complex  proteins. 
The  value  of  proteins  for  feeding  purposes  depends  on  the 
specific  amino-acids  which  they  contain,  a  problem  which 
will  be  discussed  under  the  utilization  of  the  nutrients.  The 
proteins  are  the  characteristic  constituents  of  the  animal 
body  in  contradistinction  to  the  carbohydrates,  which  pre- 
dominate in  plants.  Some  typical  proteins  are  the  albumin 
of  egg-white,  the  caseinogen  of  milk  and  the  gluten  of  wheat. 

NON-PROTEIN   NITROGENOUS   COMPOUNDS 

This  is  a  poorly  defined  group  of  substances  of  doubtful 
feeding  value.  As  already  mentioned,  they  are  generally 
included  with  the  true  protein  under  the  term  crude  protein 
in  the  analysis  of  feeding  stuffs,  as  their  determination  re- 
quires a  considerable  amount  of  chemical  work.  They  do  not 
generally  occur  in  large  amounts  in  feeds  and  are  most  fre- 
quently found  in  young,  immature  plants.  One  of  the  best- 
known  substances  in  this  group  is  asparagin,  which  occurs  in 
asparagus  and  many  other  plants. 

VITAMINES 

The  vitamines,  or  food  accessories,  have  been  only  recently 
recognized  as  of  importance  in  animal  nutrition.  Their 
functions  are  quite  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  other  groups  of 
substances  mentioned  here.  Three  so-called  vitamines  are 
now  recognized.  Fat-soluble  A,  Water-soluble  B  and  Water- 
soluble  C.  Their  names  are  derived  from  the  substances  in 
which   they   are   dissolved,   but   so   far   their   true   chemical 


PIGMENTS  35 

nature  has  not  been  determined,  as  they  are  present  in  feeds 
in  extremely  small  proportions.  Their  distribution  is  not 
uniform  throughout  the  feeding  stuffs,  but  this  can  best  be 
discussed  in  connection  with  their  functions. 

PIGMENTS 

Pernaps  the  most  characteristic  coloring  material  of  plants 
is  the  green  pigment,  chlorophyll;  but  of  more  importance,  so 
far  as  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  is  concerned,  is  the  group  of 
yellow  pigments  known  as  the  carotinoids.  These  are  found 
associated  with  the  green  pigment  and  also  alone,  as  in  the 
case  of  carrots.  The  chief  members  of  this  series  are  carotin, 
which  was  first  isolated  from  carrots  and  the  xanthophylls. 
The  pigments  occur  in  plants  in  but  small  amounts  and  are 
of  no  known  nutritive  value,  their  importance  being  due  to 
the  influence  they  have  on  the  color  of  milk. 

ASH 

Excluding  the  vitamincs  and  pigments,  the  ash  is  generally 
the  smallest  constituent  of  the  common  feeding  stuffs,  though 
by  no  means  the  least  important.  The  ash  contains  a  large 
number  of  inorganic  compounds,  and  as  it  is  determined  by 
burning  the  feed  and  weighing  the  residue  it  also  includes 
not  only  these  inorganic  compounds,  but  also  constituents, 
such  as  "ron  and  phosphorus  which  occur  in  organic  combina- 
tion in  the  feed. 

There  is  practically  no  limit  to  the  variety  of  elements 
occurring  in  the  ash,  but  among  the  more  common  are  cal- 
cium, magnesium,  sodium,  potassium,  phosphorus,  sulphur, 
iron,  chlorine  and  silicon. 


CHAPTER  V 
DIGESTION   AND   ABSORPTION 

When  an  animal  consumes  feed,  the  material  ingested  is 
generally  of  no  immediate  value  to  it.  The  feed  materials 
must  be  converted  into  forms  which  can  be  assimilated  by 
the  animal  body;  this  is  the  function  of  digestion,  which  is 
followed  closely  by  absorption,  or  the  transference  of  the 
digested  nutrients  from  the  alimentary  tract  into  the  tissues 
of  the  animal.  The  processes  of  digestion  and  absorption  are 
complicated  ones  and  all  is  not  yet  known  about  them.  A 
certain  knowledge  of  these  activities  is  necessary,  however, 
for  a  proper  understanding  of  the  principles  of  feeding. 

The  digestive  processes  of  the  farm  animals,  as  well  as  those 
of  man,  are  all  based  on  the  same  broad  general  principles, 
though  there  are  some  wide  modifications  due  to  differences 
in  the  structure  of  the  digestive  tract  and  the  character  of  the 
feed  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  various  types  of  animals. 
There  is  thus  a  closer  relationship  between  the  digestive 
processes  in  man  and  the  pig  than  there  is  in  those  of  the 
horse  and  the  cow.  Only  those  of  the  cow  will  be  discussed 
here. 

In  discussing  digestion  the  best  method  appears  to  be  to 
start  with  the  feed  as  it  is  taken  in  at  the  mouth  and  carry 
it  through  the  digestive  system,  noting  the  changes  and 
actions  which  occur  in  each  section.  This  method  renders 
impossible  the  complete  discussion  of  the  digestion  of  any 
one  nutrient  at  a  time,  but  it  permits  all  the  functions  of  one 
organ  to  be  discussed  collectively. 
36 


THE  MOUTH  37 


THE   MOUTH 


The  first  function  of  the  mouth  is  the  prehension  of  the 
feed,  and  in  this  process  the  long,  rough-surfaced  tongue  plays 
an  important  part.  The  incisor  teeth  and  the  pad  on  the 
upper  jaw  are  also  used  in  biting  off  grass,  though  they  are  not 
so  useful  for  this  purpose  in  the  case  of  the  cow  as  they  are 
in  the  case  of  the  sheep.  This  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the 
spHt  upper  lip  and  explains  why  cattle  do  not  cut  pasture  so 
close  as  do  sheep. 

After  the  feed  enters  the  mouth  it  is  masticated  rapidly 
and  rather  incompletely  and  swallowed.  Later  this  feed  is 
regurgitated,  a  process  to  be  discussed  further,  and  is  then 
masticated  slowly  and  thoroughly.  This  is  known  as  cudding, 
or  chewing  the  cud.  In  the  process  of  mastication  the  jaws 
move  not  only  upward  and  downward  but  also  laterally, 
and  feed  is  masticated  only  in  one  side  of  the  mouth  at  a  time. 

During  the  process  of  mastication  the  salivary  glands  per- 
form an  important  function.  There  are  three  pairs  of  these 
glands,  known  as  the  parotid,  sublingual  and  submaxillary, 
and  the  ducts  from  one  of  each  of  the  pairs  pour  out  saliva 
in  the  right  half  of  the  mouth  and  the  others  in  the  left. 
The  salivary  glands  are  most  active  during  mastication,  but 
they  also  secrete  to  some  extent  even  when  mastication  has 
stopped. 

Saliva  consists  mainly  of  water,  but  it  contains  a  number 
of  substances  in  solution,  including  two  enzymes  known  as 
ptyalin  and  maltase.  The  first  function  of  the  saliva  is  to 
moisten  the  feed,  both  before  it  is  swallowed  and  after  it  has 
been  regurgitated  for  further  mastication. 

The  amount  of  saliva  secreted  depends  largely  on  the 
nature  of  the  feed;  with  dry  feeds,  such  as  hay  and  oats, 
large  amounts  of  it  are  secreted  while  with  silage  or  roots  the 
secretion  is  reduced.     Where  dry  feed  only  is  provided,  the 


38  DISGESTIOX    AND    AHSURITKJX 

COW  may  secrete  lo  to  12  gallons  or  more  of  saliva  daily.  The 
mastication,  or  grinding  of  the  feed  into  line  particles,  and 
the  moistening  of  it  with  saliva  are  merely  mechanical  prep- 
arations to  bring  the  feed  into  proper  condition  for  true 
digestive  action. 

The  remaining  function  of  the  saliva  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  its  two  enz)TTies,  ptyalin  and  maltase,  and  their  actions 
are  important.  Enz>Tnes  are  substances  of  unique  powers. 
Their  composition  or  constitution  is  not  understood,  but  they 
have  the  property  of  bringing  about  chemical  changes  without 
themselves  forming  any  part  of  the  resulting  products.  In 
fact,  under  suitable  conditions,  where  the  end  products  are 
removed,  a  very  small  quantity  of  enzyme  can  keep  some 
chemical  change  going  on  continually  and  not  be  itself  affected. 

The  ptyalin  of  the  saliva  acts  on  the  starch  of  the  feed, 
which  takes  up  water  and  is  converted  into  maltose  and 
dextrin.  The  maltase,  which  is  of  less  importance,  acts  on  the 
maltose  and  converts  it  into  dextrose.  It  is  essential  for  the 
operation  of  these  enzymes  that  the  medium  in  which  they 
work  contain  no  free  acid,  and  so  the  saUva  is  normally  alka- 
line in  reaction. 

THE   STOMACH 

In  the  horse  and  man,  and,  in  fact,  in  all  other  mammals 
except  the  ruminants,  there  is  but  a  simple  stomach,  whereas 
in  the  cow  and  other  ruminants  there  are  three  other  com- 
partments besides  the  true  stomach.  Sometimes  these  are 
all  called  stomachs,  and  the  cow  is  then  said  to  have  a  stomach 
with  four  compartments,  or  even  four  stomachs;  but  as  a 
matter  of  fact  she  possesses  a  true  stomach  and  three  com- 
partments which  are  really  enlargements  of  the  oesophagus 
or  gullet.  In  the  order  of  their  occurrence  in  the  digestive 
tract,  they  are  the  rumen,  reticulum,  omasum  and  abomasum. 


THE   STOMACH  39 

Considering  these  four  divisions  as  a  whole,  it  may  be  said 
that  they  fill  about  three-fourths  of  the  abdomen  of  the 
ruminant,  the  greater  portion  of  them  being  in  the  left  half 
of  the  body  cavity. 

The  total  capacity  of  these  compartments  varies  from  30 
to  60  gallons,  depending  largely  on  the  size  and  age  of  the 
animal.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  these  compart- 
ments do  not  arrive  at  their  final  relative  sizes  until  the 
animal  is  about  one  and  a  half  years  of  age.  Then  the 
rumen  constitutes  about  80  per  cent,  the  reticulum  5  per  cent, 
the  omasum  7  to  8  per  cent  and  the  abomasum  8  to  7  per 
cent  of  the  total  capacity.  In  the  new-born  calf  conditions 
are  very  different;  the  rumen  and  reticulum  combined  are 
about  half  as  large  as  the  abomasum,  and  the  omasum  is 
small  and  apparently  functionless.  By  the  time  the  animal 
is  about  three  months  old  the  combined  volume  of  the  rumen 
and  reticulum  is  about  double  that  of  the  abomasum,  and 
in  another  month  they  are  about  four  times  as  large  as  the 
omasum  and  abomasum  combined.  From  then  on,  the 
development  continues  until  the  various  compartments  reach 
their  ultimate  relative  sizes. 

Rumen. — The  rumen,  or  paunch,  is  not  a  simple  cavity 
but  is  somewhat  divided  into  sacs  by  muscular  pillars,  and 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  it  is  studded  with  small  projec- 
tions or  papilla?.  Beginning  at  the  point  of  entrance  of  the 
oesophagus  into  the  rumen  is  the  oesophageal  groove.  This  is 
a  canal  with  an  incomplete  wall.  It  passes  along  the  edge 
of  the  rumen  and  ends  at  the  opening  to  the  reticulum  and 
omasum. 

While  the  animal  is  feeding,  most  of  the  feed  passes  into 
the  rumen.  The  rough,  coarse  feed  and  practically  all  the 
water  goes  there,  though  some  water  may  go  to  the  reticulum 
through  the  esophageal  groove,  and  any  excess  may  pass 
on  to  the  omasum  and  abomasum.     Some  of  the  finer  material 


40  DIGESTION'   AND  ABSORPTION 

of  the  feed  may  also  pass  on  through  the  oesophageal  canal 
without  really  entering  the  rumen. 

The  feed  and  water  gathered  in  the  rumen  do  not  remain 
there  inactive,  as  the  mass  is  kept  rotating,  this  action  being 
most  marked  during  rumination  and  just  after  drinking.  The 
contents  are  thus  thoroughly  mixed. 

No  true  digestive  fluids  are  secreted  in  the  rumen,  although 
some  mucous  material  is  hberated.  Nevertheless,  chemical 
action  is  continually  going  on.  The  enzymes  brought  to  the 
rumen  by  the  alkaline  saliva  continue  to  function.  The  con- 
tents of  the  rumen  vary  in  reaction,  however,  some  being 
alkaline  on  account  of  the  saliva  while  other  portions  are 
rendered  acid  by  fermentative  processes  going  on  in  parts 
of  the  feed.  Of  the  cellulose  in  the  feed,  about  15  per  cent  is 
digested  by  bacteria  and  by  enzymes  contained  in  the  feed 
itself.  Although  these  changes  in  the  carbohydrates  of  the 
feed  are  taking  place,  the  main  function  of  the  rumen  is  to 
store  and  macerate  the  feed  and  in  this  way  prepare  it  for 
further  digestion. 

When  a  cow  starts  to  ruminate,  the  rumen  becomes  quite 
active  and  its  contents  are  kept  moving  toward  the  oesophageal 
groove  for  the  purpose  of  regurgitation.  Then  portions  of 
the  feed,  about  4  ounces  in  weight,  are  separated  from  the 
main  mass  and  returned  to  the  mouth  for  mastication. 

Reticulum.— The  oesophageal  groove  affords  a  means  of 
communication  between  the  oesophagus  and  the  reticulum, 
or  honeycomb,  while  communication  between  the  rumen  and 
reticulum  over  the  wall  separating  them  is  easy,  and  there  is 
also  an  orifice  which  serves  as  a  means  of  communication 
between  the  reticulum  and  omasum. 

The  mucous  membrane  lining  the  reticulum  has  the  appear- 
ance of  a  honeycomb  and  secretes  no  digestive  fluids.  The 
contents  are  watery  in  nature  and  alkaline  in  reaction.  As 
a  rule  feed  does  not  pass  into  the  reticulum  and  its  main 


THE  STOMACH  41 

function  seems  to  be  in  aiding  rumination.  The  walls  can 
be  contracted  and  the  alkaline  fluid  passed  over  into  the 
rumen  where  it  helps  in  the  preparation  of  the  feed  for  further 
digestion.  One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  reticulum  is  that  it 
is  here  that  the  nails,  old  wire  and  other  "objets  d'art" 
swallowed  by  the  cow  are  generally  collected. 

Omasum.— The  openings  of  the  omasum,  or  manyplies, 
which  communicate  with  the  reticulum  and  abomasum  are 
both  on  its  lower  side,  and  a  groove  in  its  lower  wall  forms 
a  direct  passage,  for  fluids  and  fine  materials  which  need  no 
further  preparation,  from  the  reticulum  to  the  abomasum. 
The  omasum  is  lined  with  leaves  of  various  sizes  and  covered 
with  horny  papillae,  the  function  of  which  is  to  macerate  feed 
which  has  not  been  finely  ground.  It  secretes  no  digestive 
fluid  and  takes  no  part  in  absorption,  while  its  contents  are 
neutral  in  reaction  and  normally  dry. 

After  rumination,  the  material  swallowed  passes  through  the 
oesophageal  groove  and  to  the  omasum.  Much  of  the  liquid 
and  finely  ground  material  passes  on  through  the  groove  in 
the  lower  surface  of  the  omasum  to  the  abomasum,  but  the 
other  material  is  macerated  by  the  leaves  of  the  omasum  and 
then  passed  on.  It  is  probable  that  the  changes  started  by 
the  enzymes  of  the  saliva,  and  by  bacteria  in  the  rumen  and 
the  enzymes  of  the  feeds  themselves,  continue  up  to  this  time. 

Abomasum. — The  abomasum,  or  true  stomach,  is  the  only 
one  of  the  four  so-called  stomachs  of  the  cow  in  which  true 
digestion  takes  place.  The  abomasum  is  Hned  with  mucous 
membrane,  in  certain  portions  of  which  are  located  glands 
which  secrete  the  various  constituents  of  the  gastric  juice. 
The  various  sets  of  glands  have  different  functions  to  perform, 
but  the  main  constituents  of  the  gastric  juice  are  hydrochloric 
acid  and  the  enzymes,  pepsin,  rennin  and  gastric  lipase. 

The  feed  entering  the  abomasum  is  in  a  finely  divided  form 
and  alkaline  in  reaction,  and  as  it  is  gradually  mixed  with  the 


42  DISGESTION   AND   ABSORPTION 

gastric  juice  the  hydrcxliloric  acid  renders  it  acid  in  reaction; 
but  as  the  hydrochloric  acid  has,  lirst  of  all,  to  unite  with  the 
alkali,  it  is  some  time  before  the  action  of  the  enzymes  of  the 
saliva  ceases  breaking  down  the  starches  and  maltose.  When 
the  medium  becomes  acid  the  pepsin  acts  on  the  proteins, 
breaking  them  down  into  the  simpler  bodies,  peptones  and 
proteoses.     This  action  is  continued  in  the  intestine. 

In  older  animals,  the  enzyme  rennin  appears  to  have  little 
to  do,  but  in  the  case  of  calves  its  function  is  important.  Like 
pepsin,  it  acts  only  in  an  acid  medium,  and  when  the  milk  in 
the  stomach  of  the  calf  has  been  rendered  acid  the  rennin 
coagulates  the  protein,  caseinogen,  thus  preparing  it  for  the 
action  of  the  pepsin. 

The  gastric  juice  sets  free  the  fats  of  the  feed,  mainly  by 
the  solution  of  the  materials  surrounding  them,  though  when 
the  fats  are  in  a  finely  divided  form,  as  in  milk,  the  enzyme 
lipase  may  act  on  them,  breaking  them  down  into  free  fatty 
acids  and  glycerin.  When  the  contents  of  the  abomasum  have 
become  mixed  with  the  gastric  juice  and  a  certain  degree  of 
acidity  has  been  reached,  the  pylorus,  which  separates  the 
abomasum  from  the  small  intestine,  opens.  Part  of  the  con- 
tents then  pass  to  the  intestine. 

THE  INTESTINE 

The  intestine  is  not  a  simple  canal  but  is  divided  into  several 
more  or  less  distinct  sections.  It  is  divided,  in  the  first  place, 
into  the  small  intestine  and  the  large  intestine.  The  small 
intestine  consists  of  the  duodenum,  jejunum  and  ileum,  while 
the  large  intestine,  which  is  wider  but  shorter  than  the  small 
intestine,  is  made  up  of  the  caecum,  the  colon  and  the  rectum. 

Small  Intestine. — When  the  acid  contents  of  the  stomach 
enter  the  small  intestine  they  meet  an  alkaline  medium  in  the 
duodenum.  The  partial  neutralization  of  this  by  the  acid 
from  the  stomach  leads  to  the  closing  of  the  pylorus,  which 


THE   INTESTINE  43 

does  not  open  again  to  allow  of  further  feed  passage  until  the 
material  in  the  duodenum  has  been  rendered  alkaline. 

The  walls  of  the  small  intestine  are  lined  with  a  mucous 
membrane  which  secretes  a  digestive  juice;  the  bile  and  the 
secretion  from  the  pancreas  also  enter  the  duodenum.  These 
secretions  are  all  mixed  with  the  material  from  the  stomach 
and  have  an  important  part  to  play  in  intestinal  digestion. 

When  the  partially  digested  feed,  or  ch^me,  passes  from  the 
stomach  to  the  intestine,  the  hydrochloric  acid  which  it  con- 
tains acts  upon  a  substance  called  prosecretin,  which  is 
present  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  duodenum  and  con- 
verts it  into  secretin.  The  secretin  in  turn  is  carried  by  the 
blood  to  the  pancreas  and  stimulates  the  production  of  the 
pancreatic  juice.  The  pancreatic  juice  is  poured  into  the 
duodenum  through  two, ducts  and,  being  alkaline  in  reaction, 
neutralizes  the  acidity  of  the  chyme.  In  addition  it  contains 
three  enzymes  or  the  substances  from  which  they  are  derived. 
These  are  trypsinogen,  which  is  inactive  in  that  form,  amylase 
and  steapsin.  On  entering  the  duodenum,  the  trypsinogen 
comes  in  contact  with  enter okinase  which  is  formed  in  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  intestine.  The  enterokinase  con- 
verts the  inactive  trypsinogen  into  active  trypsin,  which  acts 
on  the  proteins  of  the  intestinal  content  and  breaks  them  down 
further  than  was  done  by  the  pepsin  of  the  stomach.  The 
trypsin  really  completes  the  work  started  by  the  pepsin,  and 
the  end  products  of  protein  digestion  are  in  the  main  amino- 
acids. 

The  amylase  of  the  pancreatic  juice  converts  the  starches 
into  the  sugar  maltose  and  the  steapsin  splits  the  fats  into 
fatty  acids  and  glycerin. 

The  bile  is  continually  formed  by  the  liver,  and  is  stored 
in  the  gall  bladder  and  forced  into  the  duodenum  when  chyme 
enters  thereinto  from  the  stomach.  The  bile  carries  off  a 
large  amount  of  waste  material,  but  plays  sopie  part  in  di- 


44  DIGESTION   AND    ABSORPTION 

gestion,  though  this  function  is  not  well  understood.  It  aids 
in  the  breaking  down  of  the  fats  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerin, 
but  the  manner  in  which  it  acts  is  not  known,  though  it 
greatly  assists  the  steapsin  or  lipase  of  the  pancreatic  juice. 

The  secretion  of  the  gland  cells  of  the  small  intestine  is 
known  as  the  succus  entericus.  Part  of  the  functions  of  the 
small  intestine,  in  the  production  of  secretin  and  enterokinase, 
have  already  been  mentioned;  but  in  addition  it  produces  a 
number  of  enzymes.  One  of  these  is  erepsin,  which  converts 
the  proteoses  and  peptones  which  have  been  formed  in  earlier 
protein  digestion  into  amino-acids,  while  another  is  nuclease, 
which  breaks  up  the  complex  nucleic  acids  into  simpler  com- 
pounds. In  addition  it  contains  a  number  of  inverting 
enzymes  maltase,  invertase  and  lactase,  which  act  on  the 
disaccharides,  such  as  maltose,  sucrose  and  lactose,  and  con- 
vert them  into  simple  sugars  like  glucose,  fructose  and 
galactose. 

These  various  enz>Tnes,  acting  in  the  small  intestine, 
complete  the  changes  started  by  those  of  the  mouth  and 
abomasum  and  finally  prepare  the  material  for  absorption 
into  the  body  of  the  animal.  It  is  true  also  that  stomach 
digestion  is  continued  for  a  short  time  in  the  small  intestine, 
until  the  chyme  has  been  rendered  alkaline. 

Absorption  is  the  process  by  which  the  nutrients,  which 
have  been  digested  in  the  alimentary  canal,  are  absorbed  and 
taken  into  the  circulation  of  the  animal.  It  is  probable  that 
very  little,  if  any,  absorption  takes  place  before  the  feed 
reaches  the  small  intestine,  but  there  it  becomes  very  active. 

The  surface  of  the  small  intestine  is  studded  with  millions 
of  small  processes  known  as  villi,  and  it  is  through  these  that 
actual  absorption  takes  place.  The  villi  are  copiously  pro- 
vided with  capillaries  from  the  arterial  and  venous  blood 
systems  and  from  the  lymph  system.  The  lymphatics  take 
up  the  products  of  fat  digestion,  while  the  capillaries  of  the 


THE  INTESTINE  45 

venous  blood  system  absorb  the  end  products  of  the  digestion 
of  proteins  and  carbohydrates,  and  in  addition  take  up  a 
large  amount  of  water  and  ash  materials. 

Large  Intestine. — When  the  material  from  the  small  in- 
testine passes  through  the  ileocaecal  valve  to  the  large  intes- 
tine the  activities  of  the  enzymes  acting  in  the  small  intestine 
continue  and  the  process  of  absorption  is  completed  there. 
The  large  intestine  is  lined  with  a  smooth  mucous  membrane, 
free  from  villi;  but  it  is  provided  amply  with  capillaries  from 
the  blood  and  lymph  systems,  and  these  perform  the  same 
functions  as  they  did  in  the  absorption  process  in  the  small 
intestine.  Even  in  the  rectum,  the  last  division  of  the  large 
intestine,  this  process  continues. 

The  processes  of  digestion  and  absorption  are  not  ab- 
solutely efficient,  and  so  not  all  of  the  materials  in  the  feed 
are  digested  and  not  all  of  the  digested  materials  are  absorbed. 
The  efficiency  of  the  processes,  of  course,  depends  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  on  the  nature  of  the  feed.  This  means  that 
a  considerable  amount  of  refuse  is  left,  and  to  this  are  added 
waste  materials  cast  off  in  the  bile  and  by  other  routes.  The 
material  left  in  this  way  is  passed  from  the  body  as  the  fasces. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   UTILIZATION  OF   NUTRIENTS 

The  utilization  of  the  nutrients  in  the  animal  body  involves 
a  large  number  of  processes  which  are  generally  considered 
under  the  subject  of  nutrition.  Without  taking  up  all  of  the 
nutritive  processes,  however,  some  knowledge  can  be  obtained 
of  the  uses  to  which  the  nutrients  are  put  in  the  animal  body 
and  the  ultimate  benefits  which  the  animal  derives  from  them. 

THE  BODY  ACTIVITIES 

The  various  processes  which  go  on  in  the  animal  body  are 
innumerable  and  complex,  and  though  some  of  them  are 
fairly  well  understood,  many  of  them  must  still  be  discussed 
theoretically  or,  at  best,  with  but  a  mere  approximation  of 
the  truth.  Broadly,  however,  the  body  activities  can  be 
divided  into  two  main  groups — those  connected  with  the 
maintenance  of  the  body  and  those  concerned  with  production. 
The  term  production  includes  such  activities  as  growth, 
fattening,  fetal  development,  milk  production  and  work. 
All  of  these,  with  the  exception  of  work,  are  of  importance  to 
the  feeder  of  dairy  cattle  and  must  be  given  consideration. 

Maintenance. — When  the  live  weight  of  an  animal  that  is 
not  working  is  kept  uniform  for  a  period  of  time,  it  is  gener- 
ally considered  as  being  on  a  maintenance  ration.  Practically, 
this  is  nearly  correct,  but  technically  it  is  not,  as  an  animal 
may  remain  constant  in  live  weight  and  yet  not  have  uniform 
amounts  of  nutrients  and  energy  stored  in  its  body.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  tissues  may  lose  some  dry  matter  and 
46 


THE    BODY   ACTIVITIES  47 

receive  an  extra  supply  of  water,  and  that  at  times  protein 
may  be  replaced  with  fat,  or  vice  versa,  and  so  alter  the 
amount  of  energy  stored  in  the  body. 

Whatever  may  be  the  conception  of  maintenance,  nu- 
trients are  necessary  to  maintain  the  animal,  and  as  mainte- 
tenance  of  the  animal  and  all  its  vital  body  functions  is 
essential,  the  nutrients  necessary  for  it  must  be  supplied  in 
the  ration.  Other  nutrients  must  be  provided  over  and 
above  the  maintenance  requirements  for  the  productive  body 
activities.  It  is  the  production  of  something  by  the  animal 
from  the  feed  supplied  that  brings  the  returns  to  the  farmer; 
mere  maintenance  is  not  sufficient. 

Fattening. — The  fattening  of  animals  is  one  form  of  produc- 
tion that  is  easily  recognized.  It  consists  simply  of  the 
production  and  deposition  of  fat  in  the  body  from  the  nu- 
trients supplied  in  the  feed.  It  is  of  more  importance  with 
beef  than  with  dairy  cattle;  but  even  with  the  latter  it  must 
not  be  overlooked,  as  the  cow  will  not  do  her  best  work  when 
in  poor  condition,  and  she  should  be  in  good  condition  before 
freshening,  to  ensure  the  supply  of  body  nutrients  which 
can  be  used  in  the  next  lactation  for  the  production  of  milk 
and  butter  fat. 

One  of  the  primal  instincts  of  the  animal  is  preservation. 
As  a  consequence  of  this  and  of  the  fact  that  less  work  has  to 
be  expended  in  using  the  nutrients  for  body  maintenance  than 
in  using  them  for  the  production  of  body  fat  the  animal  uses 
the  feed  needed  for  maintenance  more  efficiently  and  with 
less  waste  than  it  does  that  used  for  fattening.  However, 
there  is  httle  difference  in  the  efficiency  with  which  the  feed 
is  utilized  for  those  two  groups  of  body  activities. 

Growth. — The  importance  of  growth  is  evident,  and  the 
provision  of  feed  for  this  purpose  must  be  made  in  the  case 
of  all  young,  immature  animals.  Too  many  of  the  failures 
of  cows  to  produce  profitably  are  due  to  the  fact  that  they 


48  THE   UTTLIZATTOX   OF   NUTRIENTS 

have  received  poor  feed  in  insufticienl  amounts  while  still 
undergoing  development.  The  efficiency  with  which  feed  is 
used  for  growth  is  somewhat  less  than  in  the  case  of  fattening, 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  more  energy  is  used  up  in  the 
conversion  of  nutrients  into  new  tissue  substance,  in  growth, 
than  in  the  conversion  of  an  equal  amount  of  nutrients  into 
body  fat. 

Fetal  Development. — In  the  case  of  the  dairy  cow,  the 
regular  production  of  a  calf  is  essential  to  true  economy,  and 
nutrients  must  be  provided  for  the  development  of  the  fetus. 
From  the  limited  amount  of  work  available  it  appears  that 
the  nutrients  are  used  less  efficiently  for  the  development 
of  the  fetus  than  for  any  of  the  general  body  activities  first 
mentioned.  This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
formation  of  a  new  individual  requires  the  expenditure  of 
even  relatively  more  energy  than  is  needed  in  the  growth 
activities. 

Milk  Production. — The  nutrients  supplied  to  a  cow  for  the 
production  of  milk  and  butter  fat  are  used  more  efficiently 
than  those  supplied  for  any  other  productive  purpose  or  even 
for  maintenance.  This  is  perhaps  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
easier  to  convert  feed  fat  into  milk  fat,  feed  protein  into 
milk  protein,  and  so  on,  than  it  is  to  convert  all  feed  nutrients 
into  body  fat  or  body  protein,  even  to  use  them  simply  for 
maintenance.  This  is  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  nutrients 
are  to  some  extent  used  interchangeably  for  the  formation 
of  milk  sugilr  and  butter  fat.  It  is  simply  a  demonstration 
of  one  of  the  great  fundamental  functions  of  all  living  or- 
ganisms— preservation  of  the  race:  the  cow  can  use  her  feed 
more  efficiently  for  the  production  of  milk,  presumably  to 
feed  her  calf,  than  she  can  use  it  for  her  own  maintenance. 
It  is  this  fact,  more  than  any  other,  which  makes  the  cow  the 
most  efficient  of  farm  animals,  so  far  as  the  conversion  of 
farm  products  into  human  food  is  concerned. 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  NUTRIENTS  49 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  NUTRIENTS 

The  nutrients  are  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  and  in 
some  cases  they  can  be  used  interchangeably.  As  a  conse- 
quence some  methods  of  comparison  are  essential  to  a  proper 
understanding  of  their  interrelationships. 

Digestibility. — Not  all  the  nutrients  consumed  by  an 
animal  are  utilized  in  its  vital  processes.  As  the  feed  passes 
through  the  alimentary  tract  it  is  acted  on  by  the  digestive 
juices  and  a  part  of  its  nutrients  absorbed  there.  This  por- 
tion absorbed  in  the  digestive  tract  is  known  as  the  digestible 
portion  and  includes  the  digestible  protein,  digestible  fat  and 
digestible  carbohydrates.  These  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  studying  the  value  of  a  ration  to  animals.  The 
average  percentage  of  a  nutrient  digested  from  a  feed  is 
called  the  coefficient  of  digestibility,  or  digestion  coefficient, 
for  that  nutrient  in  the  feed.  The  feed  not  digested  passes 
out  in  the  faeces. 

Digestible  Carbohydrate  Equivalent. — It  has  already  been 
noted  that  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  are  the  chief  sources 
of  energy  for  the  animal  body,  and  it  has  been  found  con- 
venient to  use  the  term  carbohydrate  equivalent  for  these 
two  energy-supplying  nutrients  taken  together,  so  that  they 
may  be  compared  on  a  common  basis.  The  digestible 
carbohydrate  equivalent  of  a  feed  is  its  percentage  of  diges- 
tible carbohydrates  plus  2.25  times  its  percentage  of  digestible 
fat,  as  one  pound  of  fat  will  provide  2.25  times  as  much 
energy  as  will  a  pound  of  carbohydrates. 

Total  Digestible  Nutrients.— The  term  total  digestible  nu- 
trients signifies  the  sum  of  the  digestible  crude  protein  and 
the  digestible  carbohydrate  equivalent.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  fat  is  more  valuable  for  energy-producing  purposes  than 
are   carbohydrates,   this  sum  is  a  better  indication  of   the 


50  THE  UTILIZATION  OF   NUTRIENTS 

value  of  a  feed  than  would  be  the  sum  of  the  digestible  crude 
protein,  digestible  carbohydrates  and  digestible  fat. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — A  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  the  pro- 
tein to  the  non-protein  constituents  of  a  feed  is  frequently 
desired.  This  relation  is  expressed  by  the  nutritive  ratio, 
which  is  the  ratio  of  the  digestible  crude  protein  to  the  di- 
gestible carboh3'drate  equivalent  of  a  feed. 

Energy  Values. — It  has  been  found  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  digestible  nutrients  of  a  ration  does  not  always  give  a  true 
indication  of  the  ultimate  value  of  the  ration  to  an  animal. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  animal  body  is  a  transformer 
of  energy,  and  equal  weights  of  digestible  nutrients  do  not 
necessarily  provide  equivalent  amounts  of  energy.  Con- 
sequently some  other  measure  of  value  for  feeds  is  often 
needed  in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned. 

Energy  may  be  defined  as  the  capacity  for  doing  work,  and 
as  heat  is  a  form  of  energy  which  is  easily  measured,  and 
as  other  forms  of  energy  can  be  expressed  in  terms  of  heat 
energy,  the  heat  which  a  feed  can  pro\dde  is  taken  as  a  meas- 
ure of  its  energy  value.  The  unit  of  measurement  for  heat 
energy  used  in  nutrition  work  is  the  therm,  which  is  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one 
thousand  kilograms  of  water  one  degree  Centigrade  or  of  one 
thousand  pounds  of  water  nearly  four  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

The  amount  of  heat  obtained  by  completely  oxidizing  a 
feed,  or  burning  it  in  a  good  supply  of  oxygen,  is  its  gross 
energy.  This  represents  what  the  animal  could  obtain  from 
the  feed  in  the  way  of  heat  or  other  forms  of  energy  if  the 
processes  of  nutrition  were  absolutely  efficient. 

However,  there  are  many  losses  which  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  The  first  series  of  these  occur  before  the 
nutrients  have  had  the  opportunity  of  entering  into  the 
metabolic  processes  of  the  animal.  The  energy  lost  in  this 
way  is  carried  away  by  the  excreta.     The  faeces  contain  a 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  NUTRIENTS  51 

large  amount  of  undigested  material  and,  in  addition,  ex- 
cretory products,  such  as  some  of  the  constituents  of  the 
bile,  which  contain  materials  that  are  incompletely  oxidized. 
The  intestinal  gases  consist  of  methane  and  other  materials 
which  could  be  further  oxidized.  In  the  urine  also  urea  and 
other  materials  pass  off,  which  if  completely  oxidized  would 
provide  some  energy,  while  the  secretions  of  the  sweat  and 
sebaceous  glands  of  the  skin  and  the  cast-off  hair  also  contain 
substances  carrying  off  energy  from  the  animal  body.  When 
the  energy  contained  in  all  these  materials  is  deducted  from 
the  gross  energy  of  the  feed  the  metabolizable  energy  is  left. 
It  may  be  defined  briefly  as  the  gross  energy  of  the  feed 
less  the  gross  energy  of  the  excreta;  it  constitutes  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  energy  which  the  feed  can  actually  contribute 
to  the  energy  in  the  animal  body. 

However,  there  are  some  losses  from  the  metabolizable 
energy.  The  mechanical  work  involved  in  the  prehension 
and  mastication  of  the  feed  and  in  its  transportation  through 
the  digestive  tract  involve  an  expenditure  of  energy.  An 
additional  amount  of  energy  is  also  used  by  the  salivary  and 
other  glands  of  the  digestive  tract  in  the  preparation  of  their 
secretions  for  action  on  the  feed.  It  is  possible  that  digestion 
and  absorption  and  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  nutrients 
after  absorption  may  also  involve  an  expenditure  of  energy, 
though  this  is  not  certain.  It  is  known,  however,  that  the 
actual  presence  of  the  nutrients  in  the  cells  of  the  body  does 
lead  to  greater  heat  production. 

All  of  this  second  series  of  losses  of  energy  are  directly 
due  to  the  consumption  of  the  feed;  and  the  metabolizable 
energy,  less  the  energy  expended  in  these  processes,  is  termed 
the  net  energy  value  of  the  feed.  The  term  net  energy  ex- 
presses the  gain  of  energy  to  the  animal  body  that  results 
from  the  consumption  of  the  feed. 


52  THE  UTILIZATION  OF  NUTRIENTS 


FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  NUTRIENTS 

The  various  classes  of  nutrients  have  dehnite  functions  to 
perform  in  the  animal  body,  though  in  some  cases  the  duties 
of  one  nutrient  can  be  taken  over  to  a  certain  extent  by 
nutrients  of  another  class.  Only  a  few  of  the  general  func- 
tions can  be  considered,  however,  as  many  of  the  inter- 
relationships of  the  nutrients  are  not  yet  understood. 

Water. — Water  is  absolutely  essential  to  animal  life.  It 
probably  has  more  functions  to  perform  in  the  animal  body 
than  any  other  nutrient.  First  of  all,  the  water  supplied  to 
a  cow,  either  in  the  feed  or  as  drinking  water,  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  other  nu- 
trients. It  is  also  required  for  the  preservation  of  the  tur- 
gidity  of  the  tissue  cells  and  as  a  means  of  rendering  possible, 
through  solution,  the  transportation  of  the  other  nutrients 
from  one  part  of  the  body  to  another  and  to  the  fetus  and 
mammary  glands.  Its  importance  in  the  production  of 
milk  is  easily  seen  when  it  is  known  that  87  per  cent  of  milk 
is  water. 

In  addition  to  these  functions,  water  enters  into  chemical 
combination  with  other  nutrients  and  is  thus  used  in  the 
actual  building  up  of  tissue.  It  aids  in  the  proper  elimination 
of  undigested  materials  in  the  faeces  and  is  absolutely  essential 
for  the  carrying  away  of  waste  products  in  the  urine.  It  is 
also  a  regulator  of  body  temperature. 

Carbohydrates. — The  two  groups  of  carbohydrates,  crude 
fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract,  fulfill  very  similar  functions 
in  the  animal  body,  but  they  should  be  considered  apart. 
The  crude  fiber  performs  a  very  miportant  function  in  the 
alimentary  tract.  For  ruminants,  a  bulky  ration  is  necessary 
to  stimulate  proper  digestion,  and  the  crude  fiber  of  the 
ration  has  much  to  do  in  rendering  the  ration  bulky,  though 


FUNCTIONS   OF  THE   NUTRIENTS  53 

Other  constituents  also  play  their  part.  In  other  ways  the 
functions  of  the  crude  liber  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
nitrogen-free  extract. 

The  main  function  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  is  to  provide 
heat  and  energy  to  the  animal  body.  The  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, with  the  crude  fiber,  forms  the  main  source  of  these. 
It  may  also  be  converted  into  fat  and  stored  in  the  animal 
body  as  such,  or  it  may  be  used  in  the  production  of  milk  fat 
and  sugar. 

Fats. — The  fats  are  more  concentrated  heat  producers 
than  any  other  of  the  groups  of  nutrients.  They  help  in  the 
production  of  the  fat  and  sugar  in  milk  and  are  also  used  as 
material  to  be  stored  up  in  the  body.  Each  pound  of  fat  is 
capable  of  producing  2.25  times  as  much  heat  or  energy  as  a 
pound  of  protein  or  carbohydrate. 

Proteins. — The  proteins  are  used  for  building  up  new 
tissue  and  replacing  tissues  that  are  worn  out.  They  are 
absolutely  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  animal.  When  more 
protein  than  is  necessary  for  tissue  building  is  supplied, 
it  can  be  used  for  the  production  of  heat  and  energy,  or  part 
of  it  may  be  converted  into  body  fat. 

In  pregnant  animals  proteins  are  required  for  the  growth 
of  the  fetus  and  its  enveloping  membranes.  After  parturi- 
tion a  considerable  amount  of  protein  is  used  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  milk  proteins  and  may  also  be  used,  if  present  in 
the  feed  in  sufficient  quantity,  for  the  formation  of  milk 
sugar  and  fat. 

Non-protein  Nitrogenous  Compounds. — The  statements 
just  made  apj^ly  to  the  crude  protein,  though  the  non-protein 
nitrogenous  constituents  are  not  as  valuable  to  the  animal 
body  as  are  the  true  proteins.  However,  when  true  proteins 
are  lacking  in  the  feed,  and  a  sufficiency  of  non-nitrogenous 
organic  constituents  is  present,  they  can  take  the  place  of 
true  protein  to  a  certain  extent  in  animal  metabolism. 


54  THE   UTILIZATION   Or   XUTRIF.XTS 

Vitamines. — For  the  (lair\-  cow,  the  absolute  necessity  of 
the  vitamines,  or  food  accessories,  has  jjerhaps  never  been 
definitely  proved.  The  amounts  stored  in  the  body,  though 
of  vegetable  origin,  are  large  enough  to  carry  the  animal 
through  very  long  periods,  and  when  she  goes  to  pasture 
she  probably  has  their  stores  replenished. 

The  vitamines,  of  which  three  are  now  recognized,  are 
necessary  for  normal  maintenance,  growth  and  reproduction, 
and  are  even  absolutely  essential  for  life  itself.  In  the  case 
of  the  cow  a  supply  of  vitamines  in  the  feed  is  especially 
necessary,  in  order  that  the  normal  amount  of  them  may 
occur  in  the  milk.  Work  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  perhaps  indicates  the  necessity  of  vitamines  for 
calves,  and  elsewhere  results  are  being  obtained  which  in- 
dicate that  the  cow  will  tend  to  produce  a  vitamine-free  milk 
if  sufficient  vitamines  are  not  provided  in  the  ration. 

Most  of  the  information  available  has  been  obtained 
through  experimental  work  with  laboratory  animals,  and 
studies  of  the  dietaries  of  humans  where  certain  deficiency 
diseases  occur.  Unfortunately,  little  is  known  of  the  actual 
nature  of  the  vitamines.  It  is  known,  however,  that  their 
absence  from  the  diet  leads  to  deficiency  diseases  which  are 
frequently  accompanied  or  followed  by  other  diseases  which 
take  hold  on  account  of  the  general  weakness  of  the  subject. 
The  vitamines  are  believed  to  be  nuclear  nourishers,  and 
many  cases  of  indisposition  may  be  due  to  too  lov/  a  supply 
of  vitamines. 

The  vitamines  are  all  of  vegetable  origin  and  are  essential 
for  all  the  higher  animals.  While  they  do  occur  in  certain 
animal  tissues  and  products,  even  in  those  cases  they  are 
originally  derived  from  vegetable  products.  The  herbivorous 
animals  get  their  supply  direct  from  the  plants,  while  the 
carnivorous  animals  derive  their  supply  from  certain  organs 
of  their  victims.     The  formation  of  vitamines  in  the  animal 


FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   NUTRIENTS  55 

body  has  not  been  demonstrated.  An  adequacy  of  vitamines 
is  needed  for  both  old  and  young,  though  this  necessity  is 
generally  most  evident  in  the  case  of  the  latter. 

The  lack  of  Fat-soluble  A  leads  to  the  eye  disease  known  as 
xerophthalmia,  and  rickets  are  also  attributed  to  it.  Absence 
of  Fat-soluble  A  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  results  in  death. 

The  most  important  source  of  this  vitamine  is  butter  fat 
and  the  quantity  of  it  present  ultimately  depends  on  the  feed 
of  the  cow.  The  chief  vegetable  sources  of  Fat-soluble  A, 
from  which  the  cow  derives  her  supply,  are  the  leafy  forages, 
such  as  grass,  clover,  alfalfa  and  cabbage.  Yellow  corn  may 
contain  enough  of  it,  but  white  corn  is  valueless  as  a  source 
of  Fat-soluble  A.  Colored  roots,  as  carrots  and  sweet  po- 
tatoes, contain  it,  but  sugar  beets,  mangels  and  potatoes  have 
little  or  none. 

It  should  be  noted  that  all  of  the  sources  of  Fat-soluble  A 
mentioned  have  yellow  coloring  matter,  though  in  some 
cases  it  is  associated  with  the  green  pigment,  chlorophyll. 
It  may  be  that  Fat-soluble  A  is  a  yellow  plant  pigment  or  a 
closely  related  compound. 

The  absence  of  Water-soluble  B  from  the  ration  leads  to 
polyneuritis  or  beriberi  in  man  and  animals,  and  for  this 
reason  this  vitamine  is  frequently  called  the  anti-neuritic 
vitamine.  Its  absence  from  the  ration  will  ultimately  lead 
to  the  death  of  animals.  One  of  the  noticeable  changes  due 
to  prolonged  lack  of  Water-soluble  B  is  atrophy  of  the  testicles 
and  ovaries.  The  decrease  in  size  may  exceed  90  per  cent 
in  the  case  of  the  testicles  and  60  per  cent  in  the  case  of  the 
ovaries.     This  results  in  steriHty. 

Water-soluble  B  is  not  so  abundant  in  milk  as  is  Fat-soluble 
A,  but  it  occurs. in  the  seeds  of  cereals  and  in  a  number  of 
leguminous  seeds,  such  as  beans,  peas  and  soybeans,  cabbage, 
potatoes,  carrots,  turnips  and  beet  roots.  It  is  found  most 
abundantly  in  the  germ  of  the   cereal  grains,  and  ordinary 


56  THE   UTILIZATION   OF   NUTRIENTS 

bran  contains  little.  It  is  found  in  the  green  forages  such 
as  the  grasses  and  legumes,  but  the  hays  contain  little  of  it. 

The  vitamine  known  as  Water-soluble  C  is  anti-scorbutic, 
that  is,  it  prevents  the  onset  of,  and  cures,  scurvy.  Its 
absence  from  the  ration  ultimately  results  in  death.  It  is 
needed  by  both  young  and  old. 

The  anti-scorbutic  vitamine  occurs  in  small  amounts  in 
milk,  and  it  is  found  in  green  plants  and  in  such  feeds  as 
cabbages,  beet  roots,  and  carrots,  though  it  has  not  been 
detected  in  the  seeds  of  cereals  or  legumes. 

The  vitamines  are  essential  for  all  animals,  but  where  the 
cow  is  provided  with  a  ration  containing  plenty  of  variety  and 
some  succulence  she  will  seldom  lack  them  in  her  ration. 

Pigments. — Until  recent  years  little  was  known  regarding 
the  coloring  materials  present  in  milk,  but  it  has  now  been 
shown  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  that 
the  pigments  of  milk  are  interesting  in  character.  One  group 
of  pigments,  the  carotinoids,  consist  of  carotin  and  xantho- 
phylls,  and  as  they  are  associated  with  the  butter  fat  they 
are  called  the  lipochrome,  while  another  pigment  found  in 
solution  in  the  milk  serum  is  called  lactochrome. 

Carotin  and  the  xanthophylls  are  closely  related  sub- 
stances which  are  found  widely  scattered  in  plants  and  are 
always  present  in  the  chlorophyll-bearing  parts.  It  has  been 
shown  that  those  coloring  materials,  when  present  in  milk 
and  in  the  bodies  of  animals,  are  identical  with  the  plant 
pigments.  The  two  classes  of  pigments  mentioned  above  are 
intimately  connected  with  the  fat  globules  present — probably 
as  adsorption  compounds.  They  are  not  made  in  the  body  of 
the  animal  but  are  derived  directly  from  the  feed  pigments. 
It  has  been  shown  that  feeds  rich  in  these  pigments  will  color 
the  butter  fat  highly  and  that  the  withdrawal  of  these  sub- 
stances from  the  feed  will  after  a  time  result  in  a  loss  of  color 
by  the  butter  fat.     The  delay  in  this  loss  of  color  is  due  to  the 


FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  NUTRIENTS  57 

fact  that  some  pigment  is  stored  up  in  the  body  when  excess 
of  it  is  fed  and  this  can  hitcr  be  drawn  on  for  the  coloring 
of  the  butter  fat.  The  rich  color  of  milk  in  summer  is  due  to 
the  large  amounts  of  carotin  and  xanthophylls  in  the  green 
feeds  consumed,  while  the  white  butter  found  in  winter  time 
is  usually  due  to  a  lack  of  these  constituents  in  the  feed. 

There  is  some  variation  among  the  breeds  of  dairy  cattle 
in  respect  to  the  maximum  color  of  the  milk  fat  under  con- 
ditions equally  favorable  for  the  production  of  a  high  color. 
The  Guernsey  breed  produces  milk  notably  rich  in  these 
pigments,  while  the  butter  from  Holstein  milk  is  relatively 
poorly  pigmented.  Many  people  believe  that  the  degree  of 
pigmentation  of  milk  varies  directly  with  the  percentage 
of  fat  present  and  so  are  willing  to  pay  a  higher  price  for 
yellow  milk  than  they  otherwise  would;  consequently,  milk 
pigments  have  a  tangible  commercial  value  in  some 
sections. 

Normally  all  cows  produce  a  highly  colored  milk  fat  for  a 
short  time  after  parturition.  Probably  much  of  this  pigment 
comes  from  the  supply  stored  in  the  body,  chiefly  in  the  fat, 
and  it  is  made  available  for  the  milk  by  the  physiological 
conditions  attending  the  secretion  of  milk  about  the  time 
of  freshening. 

As  already  stated,  the  yellow  pigments  in  the  fat  and 
other  parts  of  the  body  are  the  same  as  those  found  asso- 
ciated with  the  milk  fat.  Similarly,  the  yellow  secretions  of 
the  skin  so  characteristic  of  the  Guernsey,  but  also  found  in 
less  profusion  in  the  case  of  other  breeds,  contain  xanthophyll 
and  carotin.  There  is  a  correlation  between  the  color  of  this 
secretion  and  the  color  of  the  milk,  but  the  presence  of  an 
abundant  yellow  skin  secretion  does  not  indicate  that  an 
animal  will  produce  highly  colored  milk  under  all  conditions; 
the  pigments  must  be  supplied  in  the  feed  before  they  will 
appear  in  the  milk.     Evidently  some  breeds,  and  individuals 


58  THE   UTILIZATION   OF   NUTRIENTS 

within  the  breeds,  are  more  susceptible  to  pigments  than  are 
others. 

The  lipochrome,  or  fat  pigment,  in  milk  is  composed 
largely  of  carotin,  the  xanthophylls  being  present  in  small 
quantities  only.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  carotin  is 
assimilated  from  the  feed  of  the  cow  in  preference  to  the 
xanthophylls,  perhaps  partly  because  of  its  greater  stability 
toward  the  juices  of  the  digestive  tract.  The  carotin,  as 
carried  by  the  blood  to  the  udder,  is  in  firm  combination  with 
an  albumin.  The  lactalbumin  of  cow's  milk  may  be  related 
to  the  color  of  the  milk  fat,  and  there  appears  to  be  a  special 
relation  between  the  high  color  and  the  high  albumin  content 
of  colostrum.  The  carotinoids  in  the  milk  are  derived  di- 
rectly by  way  of  the  digestive  system  and  the  blood  stream 
from  the  carotinoids  of  the  feed.  It  has  been  shown  that 
there  are  individual  and  breed  variations  in  ability  to  use 
those  pigments,  and  generic  variations  also  occur.  The  color 
in  the  fat  of  cows'  milk  consists  mainly  of  carotin,  while  in 
the  case  of  sheep  and  goats  the  xanthophylls  predominate, 
even  when  the  feed  is  very  similar  to  that  given  to  cows. 

Lactochrome,  the  third  pigment,  is  the  one  that  colors 
whey.  It  is  closely  related  to,  if  not  identical  with,  the 
yellow  pigment  of  normal  urine — namely,  urochrome.  The 
breed  of  the  cow  is  the  most  important  factor  in  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  lactochrome  in  milk.  It  is  the  amount 
of  lactochrome  present  that  causes  skimmed  Jersey  milk  to 
appear  richer  than  skimmed  Holstein  milk  or  sometimes 
even  richer  than  whole  Holstein  milk. 

Ash. — The  ash,  though  usually  the  smallest  constituent  of 
a  feed,  is  very  important.  It  helps  to  build  up  and  keep  in 
repair  the  skeleton  of  the  animal,  and  also  the  skeleton  of 
the  fetus  of  the  pregnant  female.  In  addition  it  takes  part 
in  many  other  important  functions  which,  though  less  evident, 
are  vital.     Its  presence  in  all  living  cells  is  essential  and  it 


FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  NUTRIENTS  59 

aids  in  the  functioning  of  the  nerves,  the  maintaining  of  the 
muscles  in  proper  working  condition,  and  the  circulation  of 
the  blood.  It  is  also  responsible  for  the  ash  constituents  of 
milk. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE   INFLUENCE    OF   NUTRITION    ON   PRODUCTION 

Because  the  ultimate  source  of  milk,  with  all  its  con- 
stituents, is  in  the  nutrients  taken  from  the  feed,  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  just  what  direct  influence,  if  any,  the  nutrients 
of  the  ration  have  on  milk  production. 

INDIVIDUAL   NUTRIENTS 

Each  group  of  nutrients,  such  as  the  carbohydrates,  fats  and 
proteins,  is  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  individual  and 
distinct  compounds.  It  is  not  possible  to  discuss  these  com- 
pounds in  detail,  but  the  main  groups  need  attention. 

Water. — The  water  consumed  by  the  cow,  either  in  the 
feed  or  as  drinking  water,  is  used  in  large  quantities  for  milk 
production.  There  is  no  doubt  that  limiting  the  water  supply 
of  a  milking  herd  will  decrease  the  production  of  milk.  Any 
factor  which  tends  to  decrease  the  total  yield  of  milk  also 
tends  to  increase  the  percentage  of  fat  and  other  solids  present, 
but  the  total  yield  of  these  will  generally  be  decreased.  Con- 
sequently if  the  amount  of  water  in  the  ration  is  limited, 
the  yield  of  both  milk  and  butter  fat  will  be  decreased. 

Carbohydrates. — The  carbohydrates  are  used  for  the  elab- 
oration of  both  milk  sugar  and  butter  fat,  but  those  materials 
can  be  made  even  in  the  absence  of  carbohydrates.  The 
carbohydrates,  as  a  group,  have  no  direct  influence  on  the 
yield  or  composition  of  the  milk. 
GO 


INDIVIDUAL   NUTRIENTS  61 

Fats. — The  fats,  perhaps  more  than  any  other  class  of 
nutrients,  have  been  looked  on  as  having  a  direct  influence 
on  the  yield  and  composition  of  milk.  However,  this  is  in  the 
man  incorrect.  The  fats  of  the  feed  are  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  both  fat  and  sugar  in  the  milk,  but  normally  they 
do  not  have  any  direct  influence  on  the  yield  or  composition 
of  the  milk.  Sometimes,  however,  if  the  amount  of  fat  or 
oil  in  the  ration  be  increased  markedly  or  suddenly  there  will 
be  a  temporary  increase  in  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk, 
and  this  may  lead,  depending  on  the  change  in  the  milk  yield, 
to  a  comparatively  small  and  temporary  increase  in  the  fat 
yield.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  fats  in  the  feed  have  no 
influence  on  the  yield  or  composition  of  milk. 

Though  this  is  true,  the  fats  or  oils  of  the  ration  may 
affect  the  butter  fat  in  another  way.  Certain  feeds,  such  as 
Hnseed-oil  meal,  peanut  meal  and  the  gluten  products,  which 
contain  a  fat  or  oil  of  low  melting  point,  tend  to  produce 
a  soft  butter,  as  the  fats  from  the  feed  or  their  fatty  acids  are 
used  to  some  extent  in  the  elaboration  of  the  butter  fat. 
In  the  same  way,  feeds,  such  as  cottonseed  meal,  which  con- 
tain fats  of  high  melting  point,  tend  to  produce  a  hard  butter. 

Proteins.— The  proteins  are  one  of  the  most  important 
groups  of  nutrients  so  far  as  milk  production  is  concerned,  as 
most  of  their  functions  cannot  be  fulfilled  by  nutrients  of  other 
groups. 

Amount  of  Protein. — The  protein  of  the  feed  is  necessary 
for  the  production  of  milk  protein  and,  when  supplied  in 
excess,  can  also  be  used  for  the  production  of  the  sugar  and 
fat  in  the  milk.  It  has  been  found  that  the  supply  of  protein, 
if  sufficient,  has  no  influence  on  the  composition  of  milk,  and 
if  proteins  are  deficient  in  amount  they  can  be  replaced  to 
some  extent,  as  already  mentioned,  by  the  non-protein 
nitrogenous  compounds  of  the  feed  and  by  the  use  of  body 
protein. 


62       THE   INFLUKNCE   OF   NUTRITION    ON    PRODUCTION 

Much  work  has  been  done  on  the  influence  of  protein  on 
the  total  yield  of  milk  and,  although  it  has  no  influence  on  the 
composition  of  milk,  it  is  very  evident  that  a  suflicient  supply 
of  protein  must  be  provided  if  maximum  production  is  to  be 
obtained.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  provide  just  the  amount  of 
protein  that  the  cow  needs  for  maintenance,  milk  production 
and  other  purposes;  some  additional  protein  should  be  pro- 
vided. This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  proteins  are  the  only 
nutrients  which  actually  stimulate  milk  production  and  a 
small  excess  of  protein  in  the  ration  will  generally  lead  to 
increased  production.  Too  great  an  excess  should  not  be 
provided,  however,  as  this  taxes  the  activity  of  certain 
groups  of  the  body  cells  and  ultimately  results  in  lowered 
production. 

Nature  of  Protein. — A  fact  that  has  only  been  recognized 
in  recent  years  is  that  the  nature,  or  quality,  of  the  protein, 
as  well  as  the  amount  of  it,  in  the  ration  is  of  importance  in 
connection  with  milk  production.  Proteins  consist  essen- 
tially of  amino-acids  with  a  few  other  constituents,  and  it  is 
the  nature  of  the  amino-acids  present  which  determines  the 
value  of  a  protein.  Of  the  twenty-two  amino-acids  which 
occur  in  proteins,  a  few  are  of  special  importance.  Of  these, 
tryptophane  is  absolutely  necessary  for  life  and  maintenance, 
and  lysine  for  growth,  while  histidine,  cystine  and  arginine, 
though  not  absolutely  essential,  aid  growth.  It  can  be  seen 
therefore,  that  all  of  these  five  amino-acids  are  essential  in 
the  ration  if  best  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

The  point  of  greatest  importance  in  this  connection  is  that 
all  feeds  do  not  contain  all  of  the  essential  amino-acids. 
Feeds  from  a  single-plant  source  are  apt  to  be  deficient  in  one 
or  more  of  them.  To  avoid  this  deficiency,  feeds  from  a 
number  of  plant  sources  should  be  given,  as  feeds  from  one 
source  may  frequently  correct  the  protein  deficiencies  of  those 
from  another.     Knowledge  on  this  point  is  still  in  an  ele- 


PLANE  OF  NUTRITION  63 

mentary  state,  but  it  has  been  shown  with  milk  cows  that  a 
good  mixed  ration  is  better  for  production  purposes  than  one 
made  up  from  one  source  only,  such  as  the  corn  plant. 

Non-protein  Nitrogenous  Compounds. — The  non-protein 
nitrogenous  compounds  play  but  little  part  in  the  production 
of  milk  and  have  no  influence  on  its  yield  or  composition. 

Vitamines. — As  the  vitamines  in  milk  are  derived  from 
those  in  the  feed  of  the  cow,  a  vitamine-free  ration  would  lead 
to  a  lack  of  vitamines  in  the  milk  and  ultimately  to  a  de- 
creased production;  the  presence  of  vitamines  is  necessary 
to  the  well-being  of  the  animal. 

Pigments. — The  pigments  have  no  influence  on  the  yield 
or  composition  of  milk,  though  they  do  influence  its  color. 

Ash. — As  long  as  sufficient  ash  is  present  in  the  ration,  the 
yield  and  composition  of  the  milk  is  unaltered.  If  the  ration 
is  deficient  in  some  ash  constituent  the  cow  will  draw  on  the 
stores  of  ash  in  her  own  body  to  supply  the  necessary  ma- 
terials. When  these  body  supplies  run  low  the  cow  will  still 
secrete  milk  of  normal  composition,  but  it  will  be  decreased 
in  amount.  Eventually  the  cow  will  cease  secreting  to  pre- 
serve the  necessary  minimum  of  ash  constituents  in  her  own 
body. 

PLANE  OF  NUTRITION 

The  influence  of  the  plane  of  nutrition  on  production  can 
really  only  be  studied  by  varying  the  plane  of  nutrition  from 
normal  and  noting  the  changes  that  occur.  The  results  given 
here  regarding  both  high  and  low  planes  of  nutrition  are  from 
work  reported  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station. 

Overfeeding. — It  has  been  found  that  the  chief  efifect  of 
overfeeding  is  in  the  increased  weight  of  the  animal.  There 
are  no  marked  changes  in  the  percentage  composition  of  the 
milk  or  in  the  nature  of  the  butter  fat,  though  overfeeding  has 


tJ4       THE   INFLUENCE   OF   NUTRITION   ON    PRODUCTION 

a  tendency  to  bring  the  composition  of  llie  milk  and  of  the 
butter  fat  back  to  normal  when  some  factor  has  been  active  in 
causing  variations  from  the  normal.  Only  in  some  cases 
does  overfeeding  tend  to  increase  the  total  yield  of  milk,  and 
even  then  the  influence  is  quite  limited. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  ()\erfeeding  has  no  specific  in- 
fluence on  milk  production,  but  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
continuous  overfeeding  for  a  long  period  will  result  in  the 
cow  getting  into  very  high  condition,  and  that  this  will  result 
in  a  decreased  milk  yield. 

Underfeeding. — Underfeeding  may  be  brought  about  in- 
tentionally, but  there  is  another  type  of  underfeeding  which 
cannot  be  controlled.  This  is  physiological  underfeeding, 
and  it  very  frequently  occurs  just  after  a  cow  freshens.  At 
that  time  she  is  giving  her  maximum  amount  of  milk  and 
does  not  appear  to  be  able  to  digest  enough  nutrients  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  mammary  glands. 

Underfeeding  of  either  type  results  in  a  decrease  in  the 
weight  of  the  animal.  A  reduction  from  a  high  to  a  low 
plane  of  nutrition  leads  to  a  high  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
milk,  especially  if  the  cow  is  in  good  condition.  The  yield 
of  milk  is  not  decreased  by  physiological  underfeeding  or  by 
underfeeding  of  any  t^-pe  just  after  parturition,  but  under- 
feeding later  in  the  lactation  period  will  result  in  a  decrease 
in  milk  production.  Subnormal  nutrition,  due  to  other  than 
physiological  causes,  has  a  varying  eiTect  on  the  percentage 
of  fat  and  other  solids  in  milk.  This  should  not  be  confused 
with  the  earlier  statements  made.  The  influence  of  under- 
feeding on  the  yield  and  composition  of  milk  is  consequently 
seen  to  be  more  marked  than  the  influence  of  overfeeding. 

In  studying  the  influence  of  the  nutrients  on  production  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  cow  tends,  above  all  things, 
to  keep  the  milk  normal  in  composition,  and  when  any 
nutrient,  which  cannot  be  replaced  by  another,  is  lacking  in 


PLANE   OF   NUTRITION  65 

the  ration,  the  cow  will  draw  on  the  stores  of  that  nutrient 
in  her  body  to  make  up  the  deficiency.  When  the  body  sup- 
plies run  low  enough  to  be  near  the  danger  point  three  courses 
are  open  to  the  cow:  to  decrease  the  milk  yield,  to  alter  the 
composition  of  the  milk  or  to  die.  She  almost  invariably 
follows  the  first  course. 


PART  JIT 
THE  REQUIREMENTS  OF  THE  ANIMAL 


CHAPTER   VIII 

FEEDING   STANDARDS 

For  over  a  century  attempts  have  been  made  at  outlining 
feeding  standards  for  farm  animals.  There  have  been  re- 
peated efforts  to  determine  definitely  a  scheme  which  would 
show  the  amounts  of  nutrients  required  by  the  various  types 
of  animals  for  maintenance,  growth,  fattening,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fetus  and  milk  production.  The  different  stand- 
ards propounded  have  met  with  varying  degrees  of  success. 

DEVELOPMENT 

About  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  interest 
of  many  workers  began  to  center  in  the  compilation  of  feeding 
standards  for  farm  animals.  The  first  standards  were  ob- 
tained from  feeding  trials  in  which  one  feed  was  substituted 
for  another  and  the  results  compared.  One  of  the  feeds  used 
was  then  taken  as  the  unit  of  measurement  and  the  values  of 
the  other  feeds  expressed  in  terms  of  a  certain  unit  weight  of 
the  standard  feed.  Later  it  was  found  that  owing  to  varia- 
tions in  the  composition  and  digcstibihty  of  feeds  this  method 
was  not  absolutely  reliable,  and  other  t>pes  of  standards  had 
to  be  evolved. 

Thaer,  in  1809,  was  the  first  investigator  to  propose  what 
ran  be  called  a  feeding  standard.  His  standard  was  based 
on  the  relative  substitution  values  of  feeds,  the  unit  being  a 
standard  weight  of  good  meadow  hay.  This  work  was  the 
beginning  of  our  present  feeding  standards  and  has  been 
69 


70  FEEDIXG   STANDARDS 

very  much  modified.  In  Denmark  and  other  Scandinavian 
countries  there  is  in  use  at  the  present  day  a  Feed-unit  System, 
which  is  simply  a  sUght  modification  of  the  Thaer  Standard. 
This  Scandinavian  Feed-unit  System  is  based  largely  on  the 
work  of  Fjord.  The  feeding  value  of  a  definite  weight  of 
mixed  grain  is  called  one  feed  unit,  and  the  values  of  all  feeds 
are  expressed  in  terms  of  this.  In  1910  Hansson  proposed  a 
standard  for  dairy  cows  according  to  the  Feed-unit  System. 
He  stated  the  requirements  in  terms  of  digestible  protein 
and  feed  units. 

Haubner,  about  1840,  and  Lingenthal,  in  1857,  were  the 
first  really  to  attract  attention  to  the  fact  that  feeding  stand- 
ards should  be  based  on  the  nutrients  in  feeds  rather  than 
on  the  gross  weights  of  the  feeds.  In  1858  Grouven  formu- 
lated a  feeding  standard  based  upon  the  crude  protein, 
carboyhdrates  and  fats  in  feeds.  He  saw  that  owing  to  the 
wide  variations  in  feeds  something  more  definite  than  a 
Feed-unit  System  was  desirable  and  he  also  made  allowance 
for  differences  in  the  weights  of  animals. 

Soon  after  this,  Henneberg  and  Stohmann  showed,  as  the 
result  of  digestion  trials,  that  the  amount  of  total  nutrients 
in  a  feed  does  not  form  an  accurate  guide  to  its  nutritive 
value  and  that  digestible  nutrients  are  a  more  accurate  guide. 
In  1 86 1,  Kuhn  first  drew  attention  to  the  probable  inadvisa- 
bihty  of  feeding  all  cows  alike,  irrespective  of  production  or 
quahty  of  feed;  while  in  1864,  as  the  results  of  further  work, 
WolfT  proposed  another  standard  based  on  digestible  nutrients 
and  made  allowance  for  differences  in  the  live  weights  of  the 
animals.  Later  Kuhn  proposed  a  standard  which  was  more 
flexible  than  Wolff's  and  which  distinguished  between  true 
protein  and  non-protein  nitrogenous  substances.  In  1879, 
Lehmann  modified  the  Wolff  standard  and  made  allowance 
for  the  amount  of  milk  being  produced  by  a  cow. 

Up  to  this  time  all  the  work  on  feeding  standards  had  been 


DEVELOPMENT  71 

conducted  in  Europe,  but  from  work  done  in  1894  and  sub- 
sequent years,  Haecker,  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, proposed  a  standard  which  was  based  on  the  digestible 
crude  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  which  took  into 
consideration  not  only  the  weight  of  the  cow  and  the  amount 
of  milk  being  produced,  but  also  the  richness  of  the  milk, 
Haecker  has  considerably  modified  his  standard  since  he 
first  proposed  it,  and  it  must  be  looked  on  as  one  of  the  great 
advances  in  the  formulation  of  feeding  standards. 

Work  by  Kellner  and  Armsby  has  shown  that  there  is  a 
fallacy  in  using  the  digestible  nutrients  of  feeds  as  a  basis  for 
feeding  standards  without  paying  attention  to  the  source  of 
the  feeds.  In  1907  Kellner  published  a  standard  which  took 
into  account  the  weight  of  the  animal  and  the  weight  of  milk 
produced.  He  made  no  definite  allowances  for  milks  of 
various  qualities,  but  by  allowing  a  variation  in  the  amounts 
of  nutrients  required  for  each  pound  of  milk  he  reached  the 
same  end.  His  standard  is  based  on  digestible  true  protein 
and  starch  equivalent. 

Armsby,  of  the  Pcnnslyvania  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  by  the  use  of  the  respiration  calorimeter,  was  able  to 
determine  the  net  energy  used  by  animals  for  various  purposes 
and  the  amounts  of  it  supplied  by  different  feeds.  With  his 
results  he  formulated  a  feeding  standard  which  was  based 
on  the  requirements  of  the  animal  for  digestible  true  protein 
and  net  energy.  He  allowed  for  the  weight  of  the  animal  and 
the  amount  of  milk,  but  not  for  the  richness  of  the  milk. 
In  1913,  Eckles,  of  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  taking  Armsby's  standard  for  maintenance  as  his 
basis,  formulated  a  standard  for  production,  based  on  the 
yield  and  quality  of  milk  and  expressed  in  terms  of  digestible 
true  protein  and  net  energy,  while  in  191 6  Armsby  proposed 
a  standard  for  milk  production  which  is  a  modification  of  the 
one  just  mentioned. 


72  FEEDING   STANDARDS 

Savage,  of  Cornell,  published  in  1912  a  study  on  feeding 
standards  recommending  a  feeding  standard  which  was  a 
modification  of  the  Haecker  standard  and  was  expressed  in 
terms  of  digestible  crude  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients. 

From  work  done  at  the  Wisconsin  Station,  Woll  and 
Humphrey  proposed  a  standard  based  on  the  total  dry  matter, 
digestible  crude  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients;  while 
Morrison,  as  a  result  of  the  work  of  Haecker  and  Savage, 
proposed  in  191 5  a  modification  of  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
Standard,  expressed  in  terms  of  digestible  crude  protein  and 
total  digestible  nutrients.  Since  then,  Morrison  has  modified 
his  standard  after  consideration  of  other  work.  He  now 
allows  for  a  range  in  the  requirements  for  both  digestible 
crude  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients.  This  is  the 
standard  given  in  Appendix  II. 

There  are  decided  advantages  in  this  standard.  It  allows 
variations  in  the  amounts  of  nutrients  supplied,  so  that  the 
requirements  of  the  individual  cow  can  be  more  easily  met. 
Again,  it  allows  the  changing  of  the  relative  amounts  of 
protein  supplied.  This  is  very  desirable,  because  in  some 
localities,  such  as  the  South  and  the  alfalfa  regions,  protein 
may  at  times  be  relatively  cheap  and  so  can  be  economically 
fed  in  greater  proportions  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 

CRITICISMS 

For  the  purpose  of  discussing  the  relative  values  of  the 
feeding  standards  and  their  general  use,  they  can  easily  be 
divided  into  four  groups,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
terms  in  which  they  are  expressed.  Standards  of  the  same 
type,  though  varying  somewhat  in  their  requirements,  are  all 
subject  to  the  same  general  limitations. 

Standards  Based  on  Gross  Weight.  -The  main  objection 
to  standards  of  this  class  is  that  feeds  vary  not  onl\'  in  the 
amounts  of  dry  matter  which  they  contain,  but  also  in  the 


CRITICISMS  73 

relative  proportions  of  the  \arious  nutrients  which  constitute 
the  dry  matter.  Owing  to  these  variations  and  to  the  fact 
that  the  digestibihty  of  the  nutrients  and  the  amounts  of  net 
energy  which  they  provide  also  var}'  the  different  feeds  cannot 
be  accurately  compared  for  nutritive  purposes  on  the  basis 
of  their  gross  weights. 

On  the  other  hand,  standards  such  as  the  Scandinavian  Feed- 
unit  System  have  some  distinct  advantages.  They  are  very 
practical  and  easy  to  use.  They  are  extremely  useful  as  a 
guide  to  the  economy  of  production  of  the  animals  within  a 
herd  or  even  of  herds  in  a  limited  community.  In  this  case 
the  feeds  used  are  all  very  similar  in  composition  and  so  the 
error  due  to  variations  in  the  composition  of  different  samples 
of  a  given  feed  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  the  cow- 
testing  associations  of  Scandinavia  this  system  is  used  widely 
and  has  given  very  satisfactory  results. 

Standards  Based  on  Total  Nutrients. — These  standards  are 
free  from  the  first  objection  to  the  standards  already  dis- 
cussed as  they  take  into  consideration  the  total  nutrients  in 
the  feeds.  However,  the  nutrients  present  vary  in  digesti- 
bility and  as  it  is  only  the  digestible  nutrients  that  are  of 
value  in  nutrition  these  standards  also  are  quite  inaccurate. 

Standards  Based  on  Digestible  Nutrients. — Standards  of 
this  class  are  a  considerable  improvement  over  those  of  the 
two  previous  groups.  They  eliminate  the  main  errors  due  to 
the  variations  in  composition  and  digestibility  of  the  feeds. 
The  earlier  standards  of  this  type  made  no  allowance  for 
variations  in  the  weight  of  the  animal,  the  yield  of  milk  or 
the  composition  of  the  milk.  The  Kuhn  Standard  was  the 
first  of  these  to  be  really  flexible,  while  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
Standard  made  some  allowance  for  variation  in  the  amount  of 
milk  produced,  though  Haecker  and  other  modern  investi- 
gators belie\'e  that  the  Aariations  given  were  not  as  wide  as 
they  might  be. 


74  FEEDING   STANDARDS 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standard,  which  was  the  leacHng  one 
for  many  years,  made  no  allowance  for  \-ariations  in  the 
composition  of  the  milk;  and  to  Haecker,  of  Minnesota,  is 
due  the  credit  of  ha\ing  proposed  the  first  feeding  standard 
that  made  allowance  for  this.  The  work  of  Haecker  ap- 
peared to  show  that  the  Wolff-Lehmann  Standard  called  for 
an  excess  of  nutrients;  but  as  Haecker  fed  considerable 
amounts  of  concentrates  to  his  experimental  animals  this 
fact  loses  much  of  its  significance,  as  Kellner  and  Armsby 
have  shown  that  the  nutrients  from  concentrates  are  worth 
considerably  more  than  those  from  roughages.  Haecker  has 
shown  that  the  nutrients  required  for  the  production  of  one 
pound  of  milk  increase  with  the  increase  in  richness  of  the 
milk.  Another  criticism  of  the  Haecker  standard  is  that 
the  cows  used  were  all  small  animals  producing  limited 
amounts  of  rich  milk  and  therefore  the  standard  is  not  quite 
applicable  to  all  animals.  This  standard  is  undoubtedly  low 
in  nutrients,  especially  protein. 

As  the  amount  of  work  done  in  the  formulating  of  feeding 
standards  has  been  relatively  limited,  the  computations  made 
by  Morrison  perhaps  approach  the  truth  more  nearly  than 
any  other  standard  of  this  t}^e  which  has  as  yet  been  put 
forward. 

The  work  of  Kellner  and  Armsby  has  shown  that  feeding 
standards  based  on  total  digestible  nutrients,  regardless  of 
their  source,  are  inaccurate.  In  other  words,  no  allowance 
is  made  for  the  energy  used  up  in  mastication,  assimilation 
and  other  processes  incident  to  the  consumption  of  the  feed. 
As  a  concrete  example,  it  may  be  stated  that  Armsby  has 
found  that  timothy  hay,  which  contains  57  per  cent  as  much 
digestible  material  as  corn  meal,  is  worth,  for  flesh  or  fat 
production,  only  37  per  cent  as  much  as  the  corn  meal. 

In  the  compilation  of  standards  of  this  tv-pe  it  was  pre- 
sumed that  the  maintenance  requirements  were  proportional 


CRITICISMS  75 

to  the  live  weights  of  the  animals.  There  is  a  fallacy  in  this. 
The  amount  of  heat  lost  from  the  animal  body  through 
radiation  is  dependent  largely  on  the  area  of  body  surface, 
and  this  does  not  vary  directly  with  the  hve  weight.  Again, 
animals  of  the  same  weight  may  be  in  different  condition 
and  so  perhaps  have  dissimilar  maintenance  requirements. 

Standards  Based  on  Energy  Values. — These  form  the 
newest  type  of  standards  and  consequently  have  been  com- 
puted so  as  to  overcome  some  of  the  faults  of  the  earlier  ones. 
The  best  of  the  earlier  standards  were  based  on  digestible 
nutrients,  as  already  stated;  but  Kellner  found  that  the 
digestible  nutrients  in  feeds  varied  in  the  amounts  of  net 
energy  they  supplied  to  the  body.  He  determined  experi- 
mentally the  net  energy  values  for  production  of  the  digestible 
portions  of  the  pure  nutrients,  and  then  applied  these  values 
to  the  digestible  nutrients  of  the  different  feeds,  and  com- 
pared the  computed  value  of  each  feed  with  the  actual  value 
as  determined  by  feeding  trials.  He  found  that  this  method 
of  computation  was  fairly  accurate  except  in  the  case  of  feeds 
high  in  fiber.  In  this  case  an  exceptionally  large  amount  of 
energy  was  needed  for  mastication  and  digestion.  The 
energy  required  for  this  purpose  was  found  to  be  proportional 
to  the  amount  of  crude  fiber  present;  by  allowing  for  this, 
the  computed  value  was  found  to  be  very  close  to  the  actual 
value. 

Armsby,  from  his  own  and  Kellner's  results,  computed  a 
standard  for  maintenance  which  was  based  on  true  protein 
and  net  energy  value.  This  standard  allows  for  variation  in 
the  weights  of  the  animals.  Eckles  then  prepared  a  standard 
for  production  on  the  same  basis,  and  Armsby  has  since  pro- 
posed a  similar  one. 

The  chief  objection  to  standards  of  this  class  is  that  the 
maintenance  requirements  were  determined  with  beef  animals. 
Perhaps  beef  and  dairy  animals  do  not  differ  much  in  their 


76  FEEDING    STANDARDS 

maintenance  requirements  when  of  the  same  body  weight 
and  in  comparable  condition,  but  it  would  be  advisable  to 
have  this  work  checked  by  experimental  data  from  dairy 
animals.  These  standards  also  fail  to  attribute  any  value 
to  the  non-protein  nitrogen  of  feeds,  which  is  in  some  cases  of 
limited  value.  In  addition,  the  energy  values  of  a  large 
number  of  feeds  have  been  determined  by  computation,  and 
further  direct  experimental  work  is  needed  before  too  much 
reliance  can  be  placed  on  standards  of  this  t}^^ 

The  best  feeding  standard  will  never  furnish  anything  but  a 
guide  for  the  careful  feeder.  The  individuality  of  the  cow 
is  probably  the  factor  of  greatest  importance  in  the  feeding 
of  dairy  cattle,  and  standards  make  no  allowance  for  this. 
Then  again,  economy  enters  in,  and  the  most  economical 
ration  may  not  always  be  the  ration  which  most  closely  agrees 
with  the  demands  of  any  given  standard. 

There  are  also  various  nutritive  properties  of  feeds  which 
are  entirely  neglected  in  feeding  standards;  for  example, 
the  content  of  ash  and  vitamines  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
proteins.  Ash  or  mineral  matter  is  absolutely  essential  to 
the  well-being  of  animals,  and,  though  feeds  vary  greatly  in 
their  ability  to  meet  the  demands  of  animals  for  ash,  this 
point  has  been  entirely  neglected  in  the  formulating  of  feeding 
standards.  Likewise,  no  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
amounts  of  the  vitamines  that  are  present,  and  these  sub- 
stances, though  essential  to  the  life  and  growth  of  animals, 
are  very  unevenly  distributed  in  feeds.  Moreover,  though 
all  proteins  are  not  of  equal  value  for  nutritive  purposes, 
feeding  standards  presume  that  they  are. 

A  SUITABLE  STANDARD 

With  such  a  large  number  of  feeding  standards  to  choose 
from,  the  difficulty  is  to  find  the  one  most  suited  for  the  calcu- 
lation of  rations  for  dairy  cattle.     The  modification  of  the 


FORMULATING   RATIONS  77 

Wolff-Lehmann  Standard  prepared  by  Morrison  is  offered 
in  Appendix  II  for  this  purpose,  as  it  contains  only  two 
units,  digestible  crude  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients, 
and  therefore  is  easily  used.  The  requirements  for  the  pro- 
duction of  one  pound  of  milk  varpng  from  2.5  per  cent  to 
7  per  cent  in  butter-fat  content  are  gi^'en,  in  addition  to  the 
maintenance  requirements  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight. 


FORMULATING  RATIONS 

In  formulating  rations  according  to  any  feeding  standard 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  results  obtained  will  in  most 
cases  be  only  an  approximation,  as  individual  cows  of  the 
same  live  weight  and  producing  abiHty  vary  greatly  in  their 
feed  requirements.  However,  through  the  use  of  feeding 
standards  a  good  idea  can  be  obtained  regarding  the  funda- 
mental needs  of  the  animals  and  of  the  general  proportions 
in  which  feeds  should  be  mixed  in  order  to  provide  what  the 
animal  needs.  In  general  practice  the  feeding  standard  is  of 
little  value  to  the  man  who  thoroughly  understands  the 
business  of  feeding  cows,  but  it  has  a  distinct  value  in  the 
case  of  the  beginner,  as  it  enables  him  to  grasp  more  readily 
the  underlying  principles  of  good  feeding  practice. 

Before  an  attempt  is  made  to  calculate  a  ration  according 
to  any  given  feeding  standard  a  few  general  principles  or 
rules  should  be  learned.  In  the  first  place,  the  ration  should 
be^practical  and  should  contain  as  large  a  proportion  as  pos- 
sible of  home-grown  feeds,  for  the  dairy  cow  must  be  looked 
on  as  the  market  for  many  feeds  that  cannot  be  profitably 
marketed  by  any  other  route.  In  this  connection  economy 
should  also  be  considered.  Where  purchased  feeds  have  to 
be  used,  those  which  will  give  the  most  economical  returns 
must  be  selected.     Variety  should  be  provided  in  the  rntitm, 


78  lELDlMi    STANDARDS 

and  this  will  generally  be  furnished  efficiently  if  two  roughages 
and  three  or  more  concentrates  are  allowed. 

Every^gw^hmildjec£LY£  alLlhe  roughage  she  will  consume, 
and  part  of  it  should  be  succulent.  On  the  average,  dairy 
cows  will  consume  25  to  35  pounds  of  corn  silage  and  10  to  15 
pounds  of  a  legume  hay  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight  daily. 
The  roughage  of  the  ration  is  generally  used  to  provide  the 
maintenance  portion  of  the  ration  for  the  animal,  while  a  grain 
ration  is  provided  over  and  above  this,  to  be  used  for  pro- 
ductive purposes. 

As  a  general  rule,  20  to  30  pounds  of  dry  matter  will  be 
required  daily  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight,  and  about 
two-thirds  of  this  should  be  provided  by  the  roughages  and 
one-third  by  the  concentrates.  The  amount  of  concentrates 
fed  will  depend  largely  on  the  milk  production.  As  a  general 
rule,  I  pound  of  grain  will  be  needed  for  each  3  to  4  pounds  of 
milk  produced,  depending  on  the  amount  and  richness  of  the 
milk.  Another  method  of  determining  the  grain  ration  is  to 
allow  7  pounds  of  grain  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat 
produced. 

When  a  ration  is  calculated  in  accordance  with  a  feeding 
standard  it  is  not  generally  necessary  to  give  great  attention 
to  the  nutritive  ratio,  as  that  will  automatically  take  care  of 
itself;  but  it  may  be  said  that  the  nutritive  ratio  required  in 
the  ration  of  a  milking  cow  will  generally  be  between  i  :  5 
and  I  :  7. 

As  an  example  of  a  ration  to  be  made  up  according  to  the 
feeding  standard  given  in  Appendix  Table  II,  take  the  case 
of  a  1200-pound  Holstein  cow  with  a  daily  production  of  40 
pounds  of  milk  containing  3  per  cent  of  butter  fat. 

The  maintenance  requirements  for  this  cow  can  be  obtained 
by  proportion  from  Appendix  Table  II.  The  cow  is  not  an 
exceptionally  high  producer,  and,  presuming  that  the  cost 
of  protein  in  feeds  is  about  normal,  she  can  be  given  about 


FORMULATING  RATIONS 


79 


the  average  requirements  for  production,  or  .052  of  a  pound 
of  digestible  crude  protein  and  .271  of  a  pound  of  total  digesti- 
ble nutrients  per  pound  of  milk  produced.  Her  total  daily 
requirements  of  nutrients  would  then  be: 


Digestible  Crude 
Protein,  Pounds 

Total  Digestible 
Nutrients,  Pounds 

For  maintenance 

.84 
2.08 

9-51 
10 .  84 

For  production                  

Total 

2.92 

20.35 

Now  that  the  requirements  of  the  cow  have  been  found  to  be 
2.92  pounds  of  digestible  crude  protein  and  20.35  pounds  of 
total  digestible  nutrients  a  ration  must  be  found  which  will 
fulfill  these  requirements  and  at  the  same  time  be  practical. 
The  nutrients  available  in  the  various  feeds  can  be  found  in 
Appendix  I,  which  gives  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients 
available  in  various  feeds. 

For  the  roughage  part  of  the  ration  a  reasonable  allowance 
would  be  35  pounds  of  corn  silage  and  12  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay. 
These  feeds  will  pro\'ide  the  following  nutrients : 


35  lbs.  corn  silage 
12  lbs.  alfalfa  hay 

Total 


Digestible  Crude 
Protein,  Pounds 


•39 
1.27 


Total  Digestible 
Nutrients,  Pounds 


6.  20 
6.19 


This  leaves  1.26  pounds  of  digestible  crude  protein  and  7.96 
pounds  of  total  digestible  nutrients  to  be  furnished  by  the 


80 


FEEDING   STANDARDS 


grain  ration.     A  grain  mixture  can  be  found,  by  trial,  which 
will  sup])ly  this,  for  instance: 


Digestible  Crude 
Protein,  Pounds 

Total  Digestible 
Nutrients,  Pounds 

.28 

.28 

•25 
.60 

2.10 

2  lbs   wheat  bran 

1 .  22 

2  lbs  linseed  oil  meal  0.  P 

1.56 

Total                                   

1. 41 

8.23 

This  ration  does  not  exactly  coincide  with  the  requirements 
of  the  standard,  but  is  sufhciently  close  to  it  for  practical 
purposes,  as  there  is  a  diflference  of  less  than  i  pound  in  the 
amount  of  total  digestible  nutrients,  and  a  difference  of  only 
.25  of  a  pound  in  the  digestible  crude  protein  provided  by 
the  ration  and  that  called  for  by  the  standard.  In  addition, 
it  contains  a  good  selection  of  feeds  which  are  palatable,  give 
plenty  of  variety  and  are  largely  home-grown. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  BALANCE   OF  NUTRIENTS 

In  common  parlance  the  balance  of  nutrients  in  the  ration 
is  considered  as  referring  to  the  relationship  which  exists 
between  the  digestible  crude  protein,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  digestible  carbohydrate  equivalent,  on  the  other  hand 
or,  in  other  words,  it  is  looked  on  as  synonymous  with  the 
term  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration.  It  is  true  that  these  terms 
are  synonymous  but,  considered  in  a  broader  sense,  the  term 
balance  of  nutrients  includes  several  other  factors  of  great 
importance,  such  as  the  ash  content  of  the  ration,  the  presence 
or  absence  of  vitamines  and  the  quality  of  the  proteins.  Some 
of  the  factors  which  affect  the  balance  of  nutrients  required 
by  the  cow  need  consideration. 

To  a  considerable  extent  the  main  classes  of  nutrients — 
proteins,  carbohydrates  and  fats — can  be  used  interchange- 
ably in  the  animal  organism;  for  example,  proteins  can  be  used 
for  the  building  up  of  body  fat,  and  the  functions  of  the  fat 
of  the  ration  can  be  almost  completely  taken  over  by  the 
carbohydrates.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  no  one  nutrient,  or 
group  of  nutrients,  should  be  used  to  the  exclusion  of  any 
other  if  the  best  results  are  desired. 

Proteins  are  absolutely  essential  for  the  repair  of  body  tis- 
sues and  the  formation  of  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  the 
fetus  and  the  milk,  although  most  of  the  other  duties  per- 
formed by  proteins  can  be  taken  over  by  the  carbohydrates 
and  fats.  It  does  not  pay,  however,  to  feed  just  the  minimum 
amount  of  protein  required  for  these  vital  processes,  as  addi- 
81 


82  THE   B.VLAXCE   OF   NUTRIENTS 

tional  protein  appears  to  have  a  stimulating  elYect  on  general 
metabolism  and  consequently  on  milk  jiroduction.  On  the 
other  hand,  proteins  are,  as  a  rule,  much  more  costly  than  are 
the  other  nutrients,  and  therefore  too  much  protein  in  the 
ration  will  render  milk  production  uneconomical.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  a  balance  must  be  preserved  between 
the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  ra- 
tion, and  the  exact  balance  to  be  used  must  be  determined  by 
the  requirements  of  the  individual  animal  and  the  relative 
costs  of  the  various  nutrients. 

Similarly,  carbohydrates  and  fats  can  be  used  interchange- 
ably for  certain  purposes,  and  yet  a  proper  balance,  from  the 
nutritional  and  economic  standpoint,  should  be  maintained 
between  those  two  classes  of  nutrients. 

Feeding  standards  recognize  only  the  main  classes  of  organic 
nutrients,  no  attention  being  paid  to  the  ash  constituents  of 
the  feed;  and  yet  the  ash  is  one  of  the  very  important  ma- 
terials. One  of  the  main  reasons  for  the  neglect  to  mention 
ash  requirements  in  feeding  standards  is  that,  in  general 
ordinary  farm  rations  contain  enough  mineral  matter  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  dairy  cow.  Again,  very  little  work 
has  been  done  to  determine  the  actual  ash  requirements  of 
farm  animals.  From  what  work  has  been  done  it  may  be  said 
that  the  requirements  of  dairy  cows  for  some  of  the  more 
important  ash  constituents  vary  widely,  but  perhaps  an 
average  of  i  ounce  of  calcium  and  one-third  of  an  ounce  of 
phosphorus  is  required  for  the  daily  maintenance  of  a  cow 
weighing  looo  pounds,  while,  in  addition,  i  ounce  of  calcium 
and  one-half  ounce  of  phosphorus  will  be  required  for  each 
20  pounds  of  milk  produced. 

This  demonstrates  the  small  ash  requirement  of  the  dairy 
cow.  Although  small,  it  is  very  important,  and  when  suf- 
ficient ash  for  production  is  not  present  the  cow  will  draw  on 
her  own  body  for  the  necessary  constituents  until  her  reserve 


AGE  83 

supply  becomes  exhausted,  when  she  will  decline  in  milk 
production. 

If  a  cow  is  being  fed  a  ration  thai  is  deficient  in  one  or  more 
of  the  necessary  nutrients  she  will  draw  on  her  own  body  for 
the  supply  of  these  nutrients  necessary  for  milk  production, 
and  when  this  supply  is  exhausted  she  will  decrease  in  pro- 
duction. Many  cows  are  doing  this.  They  produce  milk  in 
fair  quantities  for  a  few  months  after  calving,  not  because 
their  ration  is  composed  of  ear  corn,  timothy  hay  and  corn- 
stalks, but  in  spite  of  it.  However,  after  they  have  drawn 
upon  their  bodies  as  long  as  they  can  for  the  nutrients  neces- 
sary for  milk  production  they  rapidly  decline  in  their  yields 
of  milk.  When  they  are  dry  they  again  store  up  in  their 
bodies  nutrients  to  be  used  for  milk  production  during  the 
next  short  lactation  period. 

A  proper  balance  of  the  nutrients — protein,  carbohydrate, 
fat  and  ash — should  be  maintained  in  the  ration;  but  just 
what  that  balance  should  be  is  rather  difficult  to  state.  The 
balance  of  nutrients  required  by  a  cow  depends  on  a  con- 
siderable number  of  factors. 

AGE 

Young  cows  are  still  growing  while  they  are  producing  milk, 
and  their  ration  should  provide  the  nutrients  required  for  this 
growth.  Thus,  a  ration  for  milking  heifers  will  require  more 
protein  and  ash,  in  proportion  to  the  other  constituents,  than 
will  a  ration  for  older  cows,  as  protein  and  ash  are  the  constitu- 
ents specially  demanded  foi  the  purposes  of  growth. 

SIZE 

The  influence  of  the  size  of  the  cow  on  the  nutritive  ratio 
required  in  her  ration  is  rather  a  complicated  one.  Large 
cows  consume  less  feed  and  produce  less  milk  and  butter  fat 


84  THE   B.\LANCE   OF   NUTRIENTS 

per  hundred  pounds  live  weight  than  do  small  cows,  though 
the  large  cows  produce  most  milk  and  butter  fat  per  hundred 
pounds  of  feed  consumed.  As  the  small  cow  produces  most 
milk  per  hundred  pounds  hve  weight,  her  maintenance  re- 
quirements constitute  a  relatively  smaller  portion  of  her  total 
feed  requirements  than  is  the  case  with  the  large  cow.  Con- 
sequently the  small  cow,  other  things  being  equal,  will  re- 
quire a  narrower  nutritive  ratio  in  her  ration  than  will  the 
large  cow,  as  relatively  less  protein  is  needed  in  the  main- 
tenance part  of  the  ration  than  is  required  in  that  part  of  the 
ration  used  for  productive  purposes.  One  influence  which 
tends  to  counteract  this  is  the  fact  that  the  small  cow  requires 
more  nutrients  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight  and  a  wider 
nutritive  ratio  in  the  ration  for  maintenance  than  does  the 
large  cow,  but  this  variation  is  not  great  enough  to  nulUfy 
the  proposition  stated. 

CONDITION 

The  condition  of  an  animal  has  an  influence  on  the  amount 
of  nutrients  required  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight  for 
maintenance.  It  was  found  at  the  Iowa  Station  that  animals 
in  high  condition  required  more  nutrients  for  maintenance  per 
hundred  pounds  live  weight  than  they  did  while  in  low  condi- 
tion, but  the  animals  in  low  condition  required  relatively  less 
protein.  In  other  words,  they  needed  a  ration  of  wide 
nutritive  ratio,  this  probably  being  due  to  an  attempt  on 
their  part  to  bring  the  condition  of  the  body  back  to  normal 
through  the  use  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  for  the  formation 
of  body  fat. 

Dairy  cows  should  not  be  kept  in  low  condition,  as  they  will 
not  give  maximum  production  for  a  long  period  under  such 
conditions.  They  should  receive  a  liberal  allowance  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats  in  order  that  their  stores  of  nutrients  may 


YIELD   OF   MILK  85 

be  replenished  and  they  may  then  be  enabled  to  produce  for 
a  longer  period. 

Conversely,  animals  in  high  condition  should  be  fed  a  ration 
of  narrow  nutritive  ratio  in  order  that  the  further  production 
of  body  fat  may  be  prevented  as  far  as  possible,  since  excessive 
condition  is  not  conducive  to  maximum  milk  production. 

YIELD   OF  MILK 

The  law  of  diminishing  returns  applies  to  the  production  of 
milk,  as  it  does  to  practically  every  other  form  of  productive 
activity.  The  greater  the  milk  production,  the  greater  will 
be  the  amount  of  nutrients  required  for  the  production  of  each 
pound  of  milk;  for  example,  40  pounds  of  milk  per  day  will 
require  more  than  twice  as  much  nutrient  material  for  its 
production  as  will  20  pounds  per  day.  It  is  very  probable 
also  that  an  increase  in  milk  production  will  call  for  more  than 
a  proportional  increase  in  the  amount  of  protein,  as  increased 
activity  of  the  epithelial  cells  will  call  for  more  material  for  the 
replacement  of  kataboHzed  protoplasm;  consequently,  the 
higher  the  milk  production  of  a  cow  is,  the  narrower  will  be 
the  nutritive  ratio  required  in  the  ration. 

QUALITY   OF   MILK 

The  richer  the  milk  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of 
nutrients  required  for  the  production  of  each  pound.  The 
protein  content  of  milk  does  not  increase  as  rapidly  as  does 
the  fat  content;  that  is,  more  milk  protein  per  pound  of  fat 
is  produced  in  poor  milk  than  in  rich  milk.  From  this  it  is 
evident  that  on  the  whole  the  protein  requirements  for  milk 
production  will  very  probably  increase  less  rapidly  than  the 
energy  requirements  as  the  milk  becomes  richer.  There  will 
be  some  increase,  however,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  epithelial 
cells  of  an  udder  producing  30  pounds  of  4  per-cent  milk  will 


86  THE   B.\LANCE   OF   NUTRIENTS 

do  more  work  than  those  of  an  udder  producing  30  pounds 
of  3  per-cent  milk.  Very  probably  a  narrower  nutritive  ratio 
is  required  in  the  ration  when  poor  milk  is  being  produced 
than  when  rich  milk  is  being  secreted. 

STAGE   OF   LACTATION 

As  lactation  advances  more  feed  will  be  required  to  pro- 
duce 100  pounds  of  milk  than  was  required  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  lactation.  This  refers  to  the  whole  ration,  for  both 
maintenance  and  production.  As  the  amount  of  milk  pro- 
duced per  hundred  pounds  live  weight  decreases  with  advance 
in  lactation,  the  total  amount  of  feed  eaten  per  hundred  pounds 
of  milk  produced  must  increase.  It  is  very  probable  also  that 
the  exact  requirements  for  production  alone  increase  with  the 
advance  in  lactation,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  impetus  to 
milk  secretion  is  decreasing. 

In  the  later  stages  of  lactation  the  cow  is  usually  pregnant; 
and  though  work  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  has  shown  that  very  little  feed  is  required  for  the 
growth  of  the  fetus,  it  is  probably  best  to  provide  for  the  cow 
at  this  stage  a  ration  with  a  good  supply  of  protein  and  ash. 
At  the  same  time,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  to  build  up 
the  body  reserves  of  the  animal,  and  the  desired  increase  in 
weight  can  usually  be  obtained  by  the  liberal  use  of  carbohy- 
drates and  fats.  Consequently  the  ration  at  this  stage  will 
have  a  wider  nutritive  ratio  than  that  used  earlier  in  the 
period. 

INDIVIDUALITY  OF  THE  COW 

Individual  cows  vary  not  only  in  the  total  amounts  of 
nutrients,  but  also  in  the  relative  proportions  of  the  various 
nutrients  which  they  require  for  the  purpose  of  maintenance 
and  production.     Cows  of  the  same  weight,  producing  equal 


INDIVIDU.\LITY  OF   THE   COW  87 

quantities  of  milk  of  the  same  quality,  will  vary  in  their 
requirements.  Such  variations  are  due  to  the  "individual- 
ity" of  the  animals  and  cannot  be  accounted  for  or  controlled. 
The  only  solution  for  this  problem  is  to  cater  to  the  needs 
of  the  individual  cows,  as  far  as  possible. 


CHAPTER  X 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF   A   GOOD   RATION 

A  FEEDING  standard  is  but  a  guide  which  indicates  the 
approximate  amounts  of  the  various  nutrients  required  by  an 
animal.  In  compounding  rations  for  dairy  cattle  many 
factors  which  are  neglected  by  feeding  standards  must  be 
taken  into  consideration,  the  majority  of  which  are  simple 
and  easy  to  control,  yet  attention  to  them  will  be  of  great 
importance  in  determining  the  relative  economy  of  milk 
production. 

PALATABILITY 

Though  the  existence  of  palatability  is  seldom  questioned, 
its  definition  or  explanation  is  by  no  means  simple.  The 
palatability  of  a  feed,  though  not  determined,  so  far  as  is 
known,  by  the  relative  amounts  of  proteins,  carbohydrates 
and  fats  present,  has  a  decided  influence  on  the  economy  of 
milk  production.  Likewise,  though  it  has  no  bearing  on  the 
inherent  digestibihty  of  the  nutrients  present,  it  may  prob- 
ably have  an  appreciable  effect  on,  the  utilization  of  those 
nutrients.  The  palatability  of  feeds  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
aromatic  substances  which  give  to  the  ration  an  aroma  and 
flavor  that  is  pleasing  to  the  cows. 

The  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices  is  to  a  certain  extent 

stimulated  by  nervous  influences,  and  there  is  a  probability 

that  palatability  and  other  factors  inducing  such  secretion 

may  thus  cause  indirectly  a  change  in  the  amount  of  material 

88 


PAI.ATABTLTTY  89 

digested.  This  perhaps  holds  true  to  a  marked  extent 
only  when  feeds  are  very  unpalatable.  Even  if  palatability 
has  no  influence  on  digestion,  cows  must  be  given  feeds  that 
suit  their  tastes  if  they  are  to  do  their  best  work,  as  a  cow 
will  not  eat  all  she  needs  for  maximum  production  if  her 
ration  is  unpalatable.  If  feed  consumption  is  not  maintained 
at  a  high  level,  milk  production  cannot  be  as  copious  as  it 
should  be. 

Feeds  vary  widely  in  their  palatability  and  there  are  also 
considerable  variations  in  the  palatability  of  dififerent  samples 
of  any  one  feed.  Likewise,  cows  vary  in  their  likes  and  dis- 
likes regarding  feeds,  and  individual  cows  may  also  vary  in 
their  tastes  from  time  to  time. 

It  is  not  possible  to  rank  feeds  absolutely  according  to  their 
palatability,  but  it  may  be  said  that  as  a  general  rule  the 
succulent  feeds  and  the  leguminous  hays  are  among  the  most 
palatable  roughages  while  the  cereal  grains  are  perhaps  the 
most  palatable  concentrates.  The  by-products  used  as  con- 
centrates are  in  some  cases  not  very  palatable.  There  are  an 
exceedingly  large  number  of  exceptions  to  this,  however; 
for  example,  green^swee^  clover  is_genemJJx_unpalatable,  to 
animals  when  first  fed,  though  it  is  both  a  succulent  and  a 
leguminous  feed;  rye,  though  a  cereal  grain,  is  not  very 
palatable;  while  wheat  bran  and  linseed-oil  meal,  by-products 
used  as  concentrates  for  dairy  cattle,  are  very  palatable. 

The  animals  find  certain  feeds  unpalatable  at  first,  but  begin 
to  like  them  when  they  have  been  fed  for  some  time.  This 
is  very  frequently  true  of  such  feeds  as  gluten  feed  and  cotton- 
seed meal,  which  are  generally  not  relished  until  the  cows  have 
become  accustomed  to  them.  Many  feeds  that  are  relatively 
unpalatable  can  be  advantageously  disposed  of  by  feeding  in 
a  mixture  with  other  concentrates.  Care  must  be  taken,  how- 
ever, to  include  only  a  limited  quantity  of  the  unpalatable 
feeds  in  the  mixed  ration. 


90  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A   GOOD   RATION 

The  method  of  preparation  of  a  feed  has  some  influence  on 
its  palatability,  cracked  corn  and  ground  oats  being  generally 
considered  more  palatable  than  the  whole  grains.  This  can- 
not be  laid  down  as  an  absolute  rule,  however,  as  a  great  deal 
depends  on  what  the  animals  have  been  accustomed  to.  An 
animal  may  show  a  preference  for  some  preparation  with 
which  it  is  familiar  and  may  find  a  new  preparation  unpalata- 
ble for  a  time,  until  the  animal  acquires  a  taste  for  the  new 
feed  which  it  may  eventually  relish  more  than  it  did  the 
first  preparation.  Though  ground  grains  are  generally 
more  palatable  to  milk  cows,  whole  grains  are  preferred  by 
young  calves. 

The  condition  of  a  feed  determines  its  palatability  to  a 
large  extent.  Badly  weathered  hay  and  moldy  grain  are 
quite  unpalatable,  and  great  care  must  therefore  be  taken 
to  have  all  constituents  of  the  ration  in  good  condition  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained  from  the  feeding  operations. 

The  individual  peculiarities  in  the  tastes  of  the  cows  are  not 
always  easy  to  cope  with,  but  they  must  be  catered  to  if  high 
production  is  desired.  Feeds  that  are  usually  palatable  may 
at  times  be  eaten  but  sparingly  or  even  absolutely  refused  by 
some  cows.  A  pure-bred  Holstein  cow,  Lucy  Duchess  DeKol, 
at  one  time  owned  by  Iowa  State  College,  may  be  taken  as  an 
example.  Beginning  a  few  days  after  freshening,  she  was  fed 
I  pound  of  ground  oats  daily  in  her  ration,  and  in  about  one 
month  she  was  receiving  14  pounds  of  grain  daily;  of  this, 
3  pounds  were  ground  oats.  It  was  noticed  that  she  was  re- 
fusing to  eat  all  of  her  grain,  but  was  trying  to  get  the  grain 
of  her  neighbor.  Her  neighbor  was  receiving  a  very  similar 
allowance  of  concentrates  but  no  ground  oats.  The  cow 
under  consideration  was  decreasing  in  milk  flow,  and  it  was 
suspected  that  the  presence  of  the  ground  oats  was  rendering 
her  ration  unpalatable.  The  3  pounds  of  ground  oats  was 
replaced  by  other  feeds  and  she  immediately  started  to  clean 


PALATABILITY  91 

up  her  grain  ration  and  to  increase  in  production.  She  evi- 
dently did  not  reHsh  ground  oats  at  that  time,  though  it  is 
generally  considered  to  be  very  palatable  and  she  had  been 
consuming  it  to  the  extent  of  4  pounds  per  day  for  some  time 
previous  to  freshening. 

Palatability  is  based  to  some  extent  on  the  needs  of  the 
animal,  but  it  is  also  governed  by  her  past  experience.  If  a 
cow  has  been  overfed  on  any  feed  it  is  sometimes  unpalatable 
to  her  for  a  long  time  afterwards.  A  pure-bred  Guernsey  cow 
at  Iowa  State  College,  Imported  Rouge  II  of  the  Brickfield, 
was  at  one  time  overfed  on  gluten  feed  and  for  several  years 
she  showed  a  lack  of  tolerance  for  it.  Later,  however,  she 
would  consume  2  pounds  of  it  in  her  daily  ration  as  she  had 
again  acquired  a  taste  for  it. 

When  a  cow  appears  not  to  relish  her  grain  allowance  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  ascertain  just  which  constituent  is  the 
cause  of  the  trouble.  A  suitable  method  of  determining  this 
is  to  give  the  cow  an  opportunity  of  cleaning  up  all  she  wants 
of  her  regular  grain  ration  and  then  offer  to  her  separately 
small  quantities  of  the  individual  feeds  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. If  a  feed  offered  is  palatable  she  will  very  probably 
consume  it,  whereas  if  it  is  unpalatable  she  will  refuse  it. 

Cows  will  not  clean  up  feeds  that  are  unpalatable  to  them, 
and  as  they  very  probably  do  not  utilize  unpalatable  feeds  to 
the  greatest  advantage  even  when  consumed,  it  can  be  seen 
that  unpalatable  feeds  are  unprofitable  for  two  reasons.  In 
some  cases  cows  that  arc  considered  poor  feeders  and  low 
producers  can  be  rendered  more  productive  by  changing  their 
feeds  so  as  to  provide  them  with  a  more  palatable  ration. 
This  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  individual  feeding  where  large 
records  are  aimed  at.  It  shows  that  lack  of  care  in  the 
selection  of  the  feeds  for  the  ration  of  the  milking  herd  may 
result  not  only  in  a  waste  of  high-priced  feeds,  but  also  in 
lowered  milk  production.     Upon  the  ability  of  the  feeder  to 


92  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A   GOOD   RATION 

determine  the  most  palatable  ration  for  each  of  his  animals 
depends  the  size  of  the  records  of  the  individuals  in  the  herd. 

VARIETY 

The  dairy  cow,  unlike  the  beef  animal,  is  on  feed  for  many 
successive  long  periods  of  time,  and  as  the  best  production 
can  be  obtained  only  by  good  feeding,  it  is  necessary  that 
everything  possible  be  done  to  keep  the  cow  on  feed.  Palata- 
bility  is  an  important  factor  in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows,  and 
closely  linked  with  it  is  variety  in  the  ration.  Variety  does 
not  mean  a  mixture  of  feeds  from_  the_same  plant  sounre, 
SucTT^^scorn  sila^ge;_corn  stover,  corn  m^al  gnZTj-nrn  gluten 
feed7but  refersto  a  combination  of  feeds  from  distijict  sources, 
such^^corn  silage T^Jover  hay,  rolled  barjey^^wheat  bran, 
ground  oats  and  linseed-oil  meal. 

Frequent  or  radical  changes  in  the  ration  are  not  to  be 
recommended  as  they  tend  to  throw  the  cow  ofif  feed  and 
cause  digestive  troubles.  Rations  composed  of  a  limited  num- 
ber of  constituents  may  become  unpalatable  when  fed  for  a 
long  period,  and  rations  composed  of  a  fair  number  of  dif- 
ferent feeds  are  therefore  to  be  recommended.  Even  such 
rations,  however,  occasionally  become  unpalatable  or  unsuited 
to  the  needs  of  the  cow,  but  their  alteration  is  an  easy  matter. 
The  proportions  of  the  various  constituents  present  can  be 
changed,  one  or  more  constituents  left  out,  or  new  constitu- 
ents added  or  used  to  replace  constituents  already  present.  In 
this  way  the  rations  can  be  kept  in  accord  with  the  needs  of 
the  cow  for  maintenance  and  production  and  yet  be  palatable 
at  all  times.  Slight  changes  in  the  proportions  of  the  con- 
stituents of  a  ration  will  usually  do  more  towards  increasing 
its  palatability  than  will  radical  changes  in  the  whole  ration. 

For  good  producing  cows  two  roughages  should  be  pro- 
vided, preferably  corn  silage  and  a  legume  hay,  and  as  a  rule 
three  or  four  constituents  should  be  included  in  the  grain 


VARIETY  93 

ration.  In  the  corn  belt  dairy  cattle  rations  too  frequently 
consist  of  corn  and  corn  products  with  perhaps  one  roughage 
from  another  source,  and  comparable  conditions  are  to  be 
found  in  other  regions.  Such  rations  are  not  economical  for 
milking  cows. 

Variety  in  the  ration,  with  occasional  slight  changes  in  the 
constituents  of  the  concentrate  allowance,  will  very  frequently 
be  all  that  is  needed  to  keep  the  ration  palatable  and  the  cow 
producing  to  her  maximum  capacity.  In  other  cases,  especi- 
ally with  high  producers,  it  will  occasionally  be  found  advan- 
tageous to  replace  the  grain  ration  with  a  bran  mash.  Such 
a  mash  is  composed  largely  of  wheat  bran  moistened  with 
warm  water,  but  oil  meal  and  salt  may  be  added.  This  gives 
variety,  stimulates  the  appetite,  has  a  laxative,  cooling  effect 
on  the  digestive  system,  and  can  be  highly  recommended  when 
cows  become  sluggish  in  their  feeding. 

Recent  work  has  shown  that  other  advantages  are  to  be 
obtained  from  variety  in  the  ration.  The  proteins  are  built 
up  of  amino-acids,  but  the  proteins  from  different  plant 
sources  do  not  all  contain  the  same  amino-acids.  As  the  cow 
needs  a  considerable  number  of  amino-acids  for  the  building 
up  of  her  body  and  milk  proteins  and  as  some  of  the  essential 
ones  are  absent  or  deficient  in  certain  plant  proteins,  variety 
in  the  ration  is  essential  if  the  cow  is  to  be  provided  with  all 
the  necessary  amino-acids.  In  addition,  the  vitamines  are 
unevenly  distributed  in  the  various  feeds  and,  their  presence 
being  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  am'mal,  it  is  necessary 
that  a  ration  of  varied  character  be  supplied  so  that  the 
necessary  vitamines  may  be  provided  in  sufficient  quantities. 

The  problem  of  supplying  variety  in  the  ration  of  the  dairy 
cow  is  not  a  difficult  one,  as  a  general  rule,  and  attention  to 
this  factor  will  be  well  repaid  with  additional  milk  yields  and 
more  economical  production. 


94  CIL\1^\CTER1ST1CS  OF  A    GUOD  RATION 


BULK 

The  dairy  cow,  like  other  ruminants,  has  a  large,  roomy 
alimentary  tract,  especially  adapted  to  the  handling  of  bulky 
feeds,  and  she  can  handle  a  bulky  ration  much  more  efficiently 
than  one  of  too  concentrated  a  character.  There  are  two 
main  reasons  for  this.  Bulky  feeds  are  easily  regurgitated  and 
so  are  more  thoroughly  masticated  and  better  prepared  for 
further  digestion  than  are  concentrated  feeds.  In  the  digest- 
ive tract  of  the  cow,  heavy  or  concentrated  feeds — those  that 
are  not  light  or  bulky — tend  to  form  compact  masses  which 
resist  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids  and  so  do  not  yneld  all 
the  nutrients  which  they  are  capable  of  providing.  In  some 
cases  they  may  even  cause  serious  digestive  disturbances. 

When  plenty  of  bulky  feeds  are  present  in  the  ration  the 
best  digestive  action  is  obtained,  as  the  hay  and  other  bulky 
materials  keep  the  particles  of  grain  and  other  concentrated 
feeds  apart  and  allow  them  to  be  thoroughly  acted  upon  by 
the  digestive  juices. 

A  good  indication  of  the  necessity  of  a  ration  of  considerable 
bulk  for  the  dairy  cow  was  obtained  at  the  Iowa  Station  with 
two  cows  on  maintenance  trials.  A  ration  of  uniform  compo- 
sition was  fed  throughout;  when  the  cows  were  being  main- 
tained in  high  condition  the  average  coefhcient  of  digestibility 
for  the  dry  matter  of  the  ration  was  66.94  per  cent,  while  it 
was  only  59.77  per  cent  when  they  were  being  maintained  in 
low  condition.  The  weight  of  the  ration  was  28.6  per  cent 
greater  when  the  animals  were  in  high  condition;  evidently 
the  increase  in  the  total  bulk  of  the  ration  allowed  the  cows  to 
utilize  it  more  completely. 

As  the  cow  is  preeminently  a  handler  of  roughages  it  is 
usually  most  economical  to  allow  her  to  consume  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  rough  feeds  grown  on  the  farm.  This  not  only 
forms  a  market  for  home-grown  feeds  that  are  cheaply  pro- 


BULK  95 

duced  and  difficult  at  times  to  market  to  advantage,  but  the 
presence  of  the  bulky  feeds  in  the  ration  allows  her  to  utilize 
the  concentrates  fed  more  efficiently  than  she  would  other- 
wise. Practical  experience  has  shown  that  the  best  results 
will  be  obtained  when  the  roughages,  silage  and  hay,  as  a  rule, 
provide  about  two-thirds  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  ration 
and  the  concentrates  about  one-third.  With  high-producing 
cows  the  amount  of  dry  matter  in  the  grain  fed  sometimes 
exceeds  that  given  as  roughage,  but  long-continued  feeding  by 
such  methods  cannot  be  endorsed,  as  it  is  an  enormous  strain 
on  the  digestive  system  of  the  cow  and  a  general  collapse  in 
digestive  powers  and  producing  ability  will  result. 

In  the  cases  where  a  heavy  grain  ration  is  being  fed,  and 
even  frequently  when  the  grain  allowance  is  not  so  Hberal,  it 
is  advisable  to  have  some  bulky  constituents  in  the  grain  ra- 
tion in  addition  to  the  roughages.  This  can  be  suppHed  in 
many  sections  by  such  feeds  as  corn-and-cob  meal,  wheat 
bran  and  ground  oats.  Cottonseed  hulls  are  occasionally 
used  for  this  purpose  in  some  locaHties.  The  particles  of  cob 
present  in  corn-and-cob  meal  have  Httle,  if  any,  nutritive 
value,  but  their  mere  physical  presence  keeps  the  particles  of 
corn  apart,  thus  allowing  more  thorough  digestion  and 
utilization  of  the  nutrients  in  the  particles  of  corn.  The 
action  of  the  cob  is  almost  entirely  mechanical,  but  it  is  of 
such  a  nature  that  it  renders  corn-and-cob  meal  of  about 
equal  value  to  corn  meal,  on  the  basis  of  weight,  for  feeding 
purposes  with  dairy  cows  when  other  bulky  constituents  are 
lacking  in  the  grain  ration. 

Where  such  light  and  bulky  feeds  as  ground  oats  and  wheat 
bran  arc  too  high-priced  to  give  economical  returns  when 
fed  to  dairy  cattle,  a  good  method  of  obtaining  bulk  in  the 
grain  ration  of  high-producing  cows  is  by  the  addition  oi 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay  which  has  been  cut  into  quarter-inch 
lengths.     The  hay  should  be  cut  daily  so  that  it  will  remain 


96  CHARACTERISTIC'S   OF   A    GOOD    RATION 

fresh.  After  moistening  with  steam  or  warm  water,  just 
sufficient  to  soften  the  stems,  it  is  mixed  with  the  concentrates. 
A  very  good  indication  of  the  relative  bulk  of  concentrated 
feeds  can  be  obtained  from  a  slu(l\-  of  their  weights  per  quart. 
An  idea  of  the  wide  variations  which  occur  in  these  weights 
can  be  obtained  when  it  is  noted  that  corn  and  cottonseed 
meal  each  weigh  1.75  pounds  per  quart,  while  a  quart  of  wheat 
bran  weighs  only  .55  pound  or  less  than  one- third  as  much. 

SUCCULENCE 

Succulent  feeds  ha\'e  a  \ery  beneficial  effect  on  milking 
cows  and  are  essential  to  the  most  economical  production  of 
milk.  The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  succulent  feeds  are 
due  to  a  considerable  extent  to  the  fact  that  they  render 
the  ration  palatable,  are  laxative  in  nature  and  provide  part 
of  the  large  amount  of  water  required  by  high-producing  cows. 

Good  pasture  grass  is  the  best  succulence  for  dairy  cattle, 
and  in  the  early  part  of  summer  it  will,  as  a  rule,  provide  all 
the  succulent  feed  they  require.  In  the  later  part  of  summer, 
when  the  pastures  in  many  sections  begin  to  dry  up,  soiling 
crops  or  silage  should  be  used  to  provide  additional  succulence. 
In  winter,  silage  forms  the  most  economical  succulence, 
though  it  can  sometimes  be  advantageously  supplemented 
with  roots  or  dried  beet  pulp,  which  is  soaked  before  feeding. 
Some  form  of  succulent  feed  should  be  included  in  the  ration 
of  the  dairy  cow  throughout  the  year. 

EFFECT  UPON  THE  SYSTEM 

To  work  profitably,  every  cow  must  at  all  times  be  in 
perfect  health;  consequently  the  feeds  selected  must  be  such 
as  will  keep  her  digestive  tract  in  its  best  working  condition 
and  also  maintain  her  in  general  good  health.  The  cow  will 
do  her  best  work  when  her  ration  is  laxative  in  character,  and 


EFFECT  UPON  THE  PRODUCTS  97 

SO  the  ration  as  a  whole  must  be  one  that  tends  to  counteract 
constipation. 

Succulent  feeds,  as  already  mentioned,  have  a  beneficial 
effect  on  the  digestive  system  and  general  condition  of  the 
cow.  Alfalfa  and  clover  hays  are  also  shghtly  laxative  in 
effect  and  for  this,  as  well  as  other  reasons,  are  to  be  preferred 
to  such  feeds  as  timothy  hay,  oat  straw  and  corn  stover,  which 
are  constipating  in  action. 

Feeds  that  are  moldy  or  in  other  ways  spoiled  tend  to 
cause  digestive  troubles.  In  addition,  they  may  cause  de- 
rangement of  health  or  may  even  be  absolutely  toxic,  and  so 
should  be  avoided.  The  dangers  of  moldy  feeds,  however, 
are  not  as  great  with  cattle  as  with  horses. 

Some  feeds  have  spccihc  effects  on  the  digestion  and  general 
health  of  the  cows;  in  compounding  a  ration  for  a  dairy  animal 
it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  see  that  the  bad  effects  of  any  of 
the  individual  constituents  of  the  ration  are  counterbalanced 
by  the  good  effects  of  other  feeds.  Cottonseed  meal  has  a 
constipating  effect,  and  when  fed  in  too  large  quantities  may 
even  become  toxic.  It  should  never  be  fed  to  cows  near  the 
end  of  pregnancy  nor  to  calves  under  weaning  age.  Feeds 
such  as  wheat  bran  and  oil  meal  have  a  laxative  and  coohng 
effect  and  should,  as  a  rule,  be  fed  when  constipating  con- 
stituents are  included  in  the  ration.  They  are  especially 
valuable  where  no  succulent  roughage  is  available.  Care 
m.ust  always  be  taken  in  compounding  a  ration  to  see  that  it 
is  laxative  in  character  and  that  no  feeds  which  might  produce 
undesirable  results  are  fed  in  large  amounts. 

EFFECT  UPON  THE  PRODUCTS 

Milk  and  butter  fat  are  the  marketable  products  of  the 
dairy  farm,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  any  deleterious 
effects  which  might  be  produced  on  those  materials  by  the 
feed  given  to  the  cows. 


98  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A   GOOD   RATION 

It  has  been  found  that,  as  a  rule,  the  feed  does  not  have  any 
influence  on  the  flavor  of  milk,  provided  the  feeding  is  care- 
fully done,  even  though  it  has  frequently  been  stated  thai 
silage  imparts  a  disagreeable  flavor  to  milk.  If  the  feeding 
be  done  carelessly  this  is  true,  but  if  proper  methods  of  feeding 
be  pursued  and  proper  precautions  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
contamination  of  the  milk,  no  deleterious  effect  will  result. 
The  same  appHes  to  rutabagas,  cabbage  and  similar  feeds. 
If  silage  or  roots  are  fed  just  before  milking,  or  unused  feed  is 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  mangers,  the  milk  may  have  a  dis- 
agreeeable  odor,  especially  if  it  is  not  removed  from  the 
barn  immediately  after  milking. 

Garlic  and  other  weeds  will  impart  a  disagreeable  odor  to 
the  milk  when  they  are  consumed  by  the  cows.  This  is  due 
to  volatile  substances  present,  which  are  absorbed  from  the 
ahmentary  tract,  carried  to  the  udder  by  the  blood  and 
eliminated  in  the  milk.  Such  substances  do  not  affect  the 
flavor  or  odor  of  milk  for  any  considerable  length  of  time 
after  they  have  been  eaten. 

Certain  feeds  influence,  to  a  limited  extent,  the  chemical  and 
physical  characteristics,  and  consequently  the  consistency, 
of  butter.  Linseed-oil  meal,  peanut  meal  and  gluten  products 
have  a  tendency  to  produce  a  soft,  salvy  butter  of  inferior 
flavor,  while  cottonseed  meal  renders  the  butter  hard  and 
tallowy.  These  feeds  do  not  produce  marked  effects  unless 
fed  in  too  large  quantities,  and  by  properly  balancing  the 
constituents  of  the  ration  such  influences  can  be  minimized. 
The  feeding  of  cottonseed  meal  in  the  summertime  is  often 
advisable,  as  the  butter  produced  at  this  season  is  generally 
soft  and  cottonseed  tends  to  make  it  firmer. 


PART  IV 
THE  FEEDING  STUFFS 


CHAPTER  XI 

SILAGE 

The  ensiling  of  crops  is  not  new,  but  the  present-day  silo 
is  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  The  silo  makes  possible 
the  complete  utilization  of  a  large  amount  of  succulent  forage 
that  would  otherwise  be  wasted  or  only  partially  used,  de- 
creases the  labor  of  winter  feeding,  makes  available  a  supply 
of  good  feed  at  seasons  when  it  would  otherwise  be  scarce, 
acts  as  a  storehouse  in  which  excess  feed  from  one  year  can 
be  carried  over  to  another,  and  ultimately  increases  the  live- 
stock-carrying capacity  of  the  farms.  The  increase  in  the 
number  of  silos  within  the  last  decade  has  been  remarkable, 
but  a  realization  of  their  true  value  will  further  augment  their 
numbers. 

CORN   SILAGE 

Corn  silage  is  an  essential  feed  on  all  dairy  farms  in  the 
corn  belt.  Without  it  the  largest  and  most  economical  milk 
production  cannot  be  obtained.  Corn  is  the  best  silage  crop 
for  several  reasons:  it  gives  good  yields,  packs  well  in  the 
silo,  is  rich  in  starch  and  other  non-saccharine  carbohydrates, 
thus  insuring  silage  with  a  moderate  acidity,  and  has  a 
relatively  low  protein  content,  thus  reducing  to  a  minimum 
the  danger  of  putrefactive  changes.  The  main  acids  present 
in  silage  are  lactic  and  acetic,  and  they  tend  to  impart  to  it  a 
pleasant  aromatic  odor,  thus  increasing  its  palatability. 
101 


102  SILAGE 

The  best  corn  to  grow  for  silage  depends  on  the  locality, 
and  the  best  silage  is  made  from  corn  which  will  practically 
mature  where  it  is  grown.  Rank  southern  corn,  while  yield- 
ing more  in  total  weight  of  green  feed  per  acre,  does  not 
generally  produce  more  when  considered  on  a  dry-matter 
basis.  It  does  not  make  as  palatable  nor  as  desirable  a 
silage  as  do  some  of  the  less  luxuriant  tj-pes. 

While  practical  men  are  not  all  agreed  as  to  the  best  time 
to  cut  corn  for  silage,  the  general  practice  is  to  do  it  soon 
after  the  corn  begins  to  dent  and  the  lower  leaves  begin  to 
dry  up.  In  the  northern  sections  the  aim  is  to  cut  the  corn 
just  before  frost,  without  much  regard  to  its  maturity. 

The  degree  of  ripeness  at  which  the  crop  is  cut  has  a  great 
influence  on  the  yield  and  quality  of  silage  produced.  If  the 
ensiling  is  done  too  early  the  maximum  yield  of  nutrients  will 
not  be  obtained  and,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  water  and 
soluble  substances  present,  the  fermentation  will  be  excessive, 
much  valuable  feeding  material  will  be  lost,  a  poor  quality  of 
silage  will  result  and  the  large  amount  of  water  present  may 
even  cause  the  silo  to  leak.  If  the  cutting  is  delayed  too  long 
the  yield  of  dry  matter  will  be  at  a  maximum,  but  owing  to 
the  maturity  of  the  corn  there  will  be  a  high  fiber  content 
and  too  little  moisture  to  insure  good  packing;  large  amounts 
of  air  will  be  present,  and  the  contents  of  the  silo  will  become 
moldy  and  perhaps  rot,  unless  water  is  added  at  the  time  of 
filling.  Moldy  silage  is  not  only  undesirable  but  sometimes 
even  dangerous  to  stock,  although  this  danger  is  not  so 
great  with  cattle  as  with  horses.  The  yield  of  corn  silage  per 
acre  is  variable,  but  it  may  generally  be  assumed  that 
about  1  ton  of  silage  can  be  expected  for  each  5  bushels  of 
corn  that  could  be  obtained. 

The  following  figures  adapted  from  "The  Soft  Corn  Pre- 
dicament," by  Evvard,  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  illustrate  well  the  facts  mentioned : 


CORN   SILAGE 


103 


TALBE  XII 

Percentage  Yield  of  Nutrients  from  an  Acre  of  Corn  at  Different 
Stages  of  Growth 


Stage  of  Growth 

Dry 

Matter, 

Per  Cent 

Crude 
Protein, 

Per  Cent 

Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract, 
Per  Cent 

Crude 
Fiber, 

Per  Cent 

lOO 

95 
86 
66 

ICO 

95 

82 

79 

I  GO 

96 
86 
61 

Well  dented 

In  the  glaze 

In  the  milk 

92 
88 
78 

That  the  use  of  the  silo  makes  possible  the  most  efficient 
harvesting  of  the  corn  crop  is  shown  by  results  from  the  Wis- 
consin Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  During  a  period  of 
four  years  it  was  found  that  when  the  corn  crop  was  dried 
in  the  shock  there  was  an  average  loss  of  23.8  per  cent  of 
the  dry  matter  and  24.3  per  cent  of  the  crude  protein,  whereas 
when  the  corn  was  made  into  ensilage  the  respective  losses 
were  15.6  per  cent  and  16.8  per  cent.  This  shows  a  con- 
siderable conservation  of  the  valuable  food  nutrients.  Then 
again,  when  the  crop  has  been  put  in  the  silo  all  of  it  will  be 
consumed  by  the  animals,  but  when  the  corn  has  been  shocked 
the  stock  will  refuse  a  large  part  of  it. 

Though  good  succulent  corn  is  to  be  preferred  for  the 
making  of  silage,  fairly  satisfactory  feed  can  be  made  in  the 
silo  when  this  is  not  obtainable;  by  this  means  a  corn  crop 
which  has  been  damaged  by  drought  or  frost,  and  which 
otherwise  would  be  wasted  to  a  large  extent,  can  be  made 
into  a  valuable  forage.  Such  material  is  not  necessarily  poor 
or  dangerous  as  a  feed.  It  contains  the  same  amount  of 
nutrients  as  it  did  immediately  before  it  was  damaged, 
though,  of  course,  less  than  if  it  had  been  allowed  to  come  to 
the  proper  stage  of  development.     If  it  is  ensiled  as  soon  as 


104  SILAGE 

possbile  after  it  is  damaged  it  will  come  out  of  the  silo  in  good 
condition.  If  it  has  been  allowed  to  dry  out,  however,  water 
should  be  added  as  it  is  being  put  into  the  silo,  as  this  will 
aid  in  the  packing  process  and  give  the  necessary  succulence. 

Corn  fodder  that  has  been  dried  in  the  shock  can  also  be  made 
into  good  silage  if  plenty  of  water  is  added  to  moisten  it. 
Though  not  quite  as  palatable  as  the  silage  made  from  the 
fresh,  green  forage,  it  gives  good  results  and  will  be  more 
thoroughly  utilized  than  would  dry  fodder.  Similarly,  corn 
stover  can  be  rendered  more  valuable  as  a  feed  by  being 
put  in  the  silo,  though,  of  course,  the  absence  of  the  ears 
lowers  its  feeding  value. 

The  amount  of  water  that  should  be  added  in  the  ensihng 
of  fodder  or  stover  varies,  but  it  has  been  found  that  as  a 
rule  about  i  pound  of  water  will  be  required  for  each  pound 
of  dry  forage.  According  to  recent  Illinois  Agricultuiai 
Experiment  Station  results,  shghtly  less  water  gives  a  more 
palatable  silage.  The  quahty  of  the  silage  is  largely  affected 
by  the  amount  of  water  added.  More  water  than  is  actually 
required  does  not  harm  the  feed,  though  it  makes  it  heavier 
to  handle  without  any  apparent  benefit.  Good  results  have 
been  obtained  from  the  ensiling  of  fodder  at  the  Missouri 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  and  other  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations  and  by  practical  dairymen,  and  if 
future  work  confirms  this  it  may  become  a  common  practice 
to  fill  silos  twice  or  oftener  during  the  year. 

A  conservative  estimate  fixes  the  value  of  the  silage  at  from 
lo  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  over  the  equivalent  dry  fodder, 
though  some  put  it  much  higher. 

Sometimes  when  silos  are  filled  at  the  usual  time  the  corn 
is  husked,  but  this  is  not  to  be  rectmimended.  At  the  Vermont 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  it  was  found  that  the  yield 
of  1 1  acres  treated  by  this  method  was  required  to  produce 
silage  of  the  same  value  as  that  from  an  acre  of  unhusked 


CORN  SILAGE  103 

corn.  Where  the  corn  has  been  husked,  a  heavier  grain  ration 
must  be  fed;  there  is,  therefore,  no  advantage  in  husking  and 
then  ensihng  the  crop. 

Poor  silage,  as  a  rule,  results  from  one  of  two  causes. 
First,  poor  packing  of  silage,  with  plenty  of  moisture  present 
results  in  the  entrance  of  air  and  rotting,  while  in  the  second 
place  silage  that  is  too  dry  will  not  pack  well  and  as  a  con- 
sequence it  will  become  moldy.  Good  packing  at  filling  time 
directly  influences  the  quality  of  the  silage. 

Great  variations  are  to  be  found  in  the  estimates  given  as 
to  the  cost  of  producing  a  ton  of  silage.  The  cost  varies 
greatly  with  individual  cases,  depending  largely  on  the  size 
of  crop  obtained  and  the  cost  of  labor.  The  cost  of  producing 
silage  is  sometimes  figured  on  the  basis  of  the  corn  it  contains 
— the  market  value  of  the  corn  being  used.  This  really  gives 
not  the  cost  of  production  of  the  silage,  but  the  sum  that  could 
have  been  obtained  by  selling  the  corn  at  the  elevator  in 
preference  to  putting  it  in  the  silo.  This  latter  method  of 
determining  the  value  of  the  silage  can  frequently  be  used 
advantageously  if  some  allowance  is  made  for  the  fodder 
contained. 

The  increase  in  the  corn-canning  industry  has  resulted  in 
the  production  of  a  large  amount  of  cannery  refuse  which  is 
frequently  allowed  to  go  to  waste,  but  which  can  be  satis- 
factorily used  as  silage.  At  some  canneries  this  refuse  is  put 
in  silos  while  at  others  it  is  simply  piled  up.  The  greatest 
conservation  is  obtained  where  the  silo  is  used,  but  even  the 
piled-up  waste  can  provide  a  large  amount  of  good  feed, 
though  the  outside  material  will  be  spoiled.  Where  the 
spoiled  ears  and  the  cobs  are  not  put  in  with  the  remainder 
of  the  waste  products  from  the  sweet-corn  cannery,  the  refuse 
has  a  fair  feeding  value.  It  was  found  at  the  Iowa  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station  that  i  ton  of  this  material,  with  the 
addition  of  5  bushels  of  corn,  had  a  value  about  equivalent  to 


106  STLAGE 

that  of  I  ton  of  good  corn  silage.  Where  the  spoiled  ears  that 
cannot  be  used  for  canning  are  put  in  with  the  rest  of  the 
waste  material,  a  silage  of  somewhat  higher  feeding  value 
will  be  obtained.  This  indicates  that,  by  the  proper  utiliza- 
tion of  all  the  cannery  refuse  by  means  of  the  silo,  a  very 
valuable  addition  to  the  supply  of  succulent  forage  for  winter 
feeding  would  be  obtained  in  many  sections. 

The  value  of  corn  silage  as  a  forage  depends  largely  on  its 
succulence,  bulk,  palatability  and  the  beneficial  effect  it  has 
on  the  digestive  tract  of  the  animal.  In  effect  it  is  laxative 
and  coohng.  These  are  the  essential  characteristics  of  a  good 
ration  for  a  dairy  cow  and  they  make  silage  an  excellent  feed 
for  milk  production.  In  addition,  silage  from  unhusked  corn 
contains  about  5  bushels  of  grain  per  ton. 

Silage  should  be  fed  to  all  classes  of  dairy  cattle.  The  only 
precautions  that  have  to  be  taken  are  in  the  feeding  of  the 
bull  and  the  young  calves.  Too  much  silage  causes  the  bull 
to  become  sluggish,  awkward  and  slow  at  breeding.  How- 
ever, a  limited  amount  is  desirable.  Silage  is  not  desirable 
for  young  calves  as  it  ferments  readily  and  thus  may  cause 
digestive  disturbances. 

Silage  should  be  supplemented  not  only  with  concentrates 
but  also  with  a  legume  hay.  Cirowing  stock  and  milk  cows 
need  all  the  silage  they  will  consume,  in  addition  to  their 
hay  and  grain.  Milk  cows,  as  a  rule,  take  2^  to  3^  pounds 
of  silage  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight  per  day. 

When  the  cows  are  turned  out  to  pasture  in  the  spring  the 
milk  yield  invariably  increases;  this  is  due  largely  to  the 
palatable,  succulent  nature  of  the  pasture.  This  initial  rise 
is  not  a  full  measure  of  the  value  of  pasture,  however,  as  it 
puts  the  cows  in  condition  for  continued  milk  production. 
The  feeding  of  silage  in  winter  renders  available  many  of  the 
advantages  of  pasture,  as  the  essential  characteristics  of  the 
two  are  similar. 


CORN   STLAGE  107 

Silage,  though  of  greater  value  in  winter,  can  be  used  to 
considerable  advantage  in  summer  when  the  pasture  is  short 
and  dry.  The  feeding  of  silage  in  the  barn,  during  the  hot, 
dry  weather  of  summer,  is  an  excellent  method  of  supplement- 
ing scant  pasture. 

The  feeding  of  silage,  though  not  a  difficult  matter,  should 
be  done  with  care,  or  trouble  may  arise.  The  silo  should  be  of 
such  a  diameter  that  sufficient  feed  can  be  taken  out  each 
day  to  prevent  decomposition  of  the  top  layer.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the  summer,  and  if  a  silo  is  erected  for  sum- 
mer use  only,  it  should  be  of  smaller  diameter  than  the  winter 
silo.  In  winter  the  silage  will  keep  well  if  at  least  2  inches 
per  day  are  removed  for  feeding  purposes,  but  in  summer  it 
must  be  removed  twice  as  rapidly.  In  general,  the  winter 
silage-feeding  period  averages  about  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  days  in  duration,  and  as  2  inches  is  the  smallest  depth 
of  silage  that  should  be  removed  per  day,  the  total  depth  of 
the  silage  in  the  silos  should  be  at  least  36  to  38  feet  at  the 
beginning  of  the  winter  feeding  of  silage. 

At  one  time  it  was  thought  that  good  milk  could  not  be 
produced  when  silage  was  fed,  but  this  is  incorrect.  Milk  will 
rapidly  take  on  a  silage  odor  if  it  is  given  the  opportunity.  If 
the  silos  are  shut  off  from  the  barn,  the  silage  fed  after  milking, 
the  amount  limited  to  what  will  be  cleaned  up  in  a  short 
time,  and  the  milk  removed  from  the  barn  as  soon  as  it  is 
drawn,  there  is  no  danger  of  having  a  silage  odor  in  milk. 
Bad  odors  of  any  kind  in  milk  are,  as  a  rule,  due  to  careless- 
ness. A  test  conducted  by  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  regarding  the  flavor  of  milk  from  silage-fed 
and  non-silage-fed  cows  gave  results  very  favorable  to  the 
milk  from  the  cows  that  had  received  silage.  Out  of  three 
hundred  and  seventy-two  people  to  whom  the  milk  samples 
were  submitted  60  per  cent  preferred  the  milk  from 
the    silage-fed     cows,    2q     per     cent     preferred     the     milk 


lOS  SILAGE 

from    the    non-silage-fed  cows,  and   ii   per  cent    expressed 
no  preference. 

Even  at  the  present  time  it  is  sometimes  said  that  silage 
causes  the  teeth  of  the  cows  to  decay,  brings  about  digestive 
troubles  and  may  induce  abortion.  These  statements  are 
incorrect.  Silage  does  not  cause  teeth  to  decay,  and  unless 
it  is  badly  molded  or  decayed  or  suddenly  fed  in  too  large 
quantities,  it  will  not  cause  digestive  troubles.  The  only 
wav  in  which  silage  could  induce  abortion  would  be  as  a 
result  of  some  of  the  improper  feeding  methods  just  mentioned. 

OTHER   SILAGE    CROPS 

Corn  is  the  paramount  silage  crop  on  account  of  its  adapta- 
biUty  for  this  use  and  the  wide  area  over  which  it  is  grown. 
Other  crops  are  used  for  silage  to  a  limited  extent,  in  some 
cases  where  corn  cannot  be  successfully  gro^^^l  and  in  others 
where  attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize  by-products  that 
would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

Non-Leguminous. — Of  the  non-leguminous  crops  used  for 
silage,  the  sorghums  are  perhaps  the  most  important;  both 
the  sweet  and  grain  sorghums  are  used  for  this  purpose.  They 
are  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  drier  sections  of  the  country, 
though  of  httle  importance  in  the  corn  belt.  Under  such 
conditions  they  give  good  fields  and  provide  a  very  palatable 
silage  which  is  somewhat  below  corn  silage  in  feeding  value. 
At  one  time  it  was  thought  that  the  sorghums  would  give  a 
silage  of  too  great  acidity,  but  this  is  incorrect.  Kafir  corn 
and  amber  cane  appear  to  be  the  only  two  sorghum  silages 
which  have  been  directly  compared  and  the  former  was  of 
somewhat  higher  feeding  value. 

Some  work  has  been  done  in  the  west  on  the  use  of  sun- 
flowers for  silage,  and  although  fair  results  have  been  obtained, 
the  feed  is  not  as  palatable  nor  as  valuable  for  milk  production 
as  is  corn  silage.     To  make  the  best  silage,  the  sunflowers 


OTHER   SILAGE   CROPS  ■  109 

must  be  cut  when  about  one-third  of  the  crop  is  in  bloom  and 
chopped  finely  to  insure  proper  packing.  The  silage  made  in 
this  way  is  perhaps  of  about  the  same  value  as  that  made 
from  immature  corn.  The  possible  future  for  sunflower  silage 
lies  in  some  of  the  regions  where  corn  cannot  be  successfully 
grown. 

The  lesser  cereals,  such  as  oats  and  rye.  have  been  used  to 
some  extent  for  silage,  but  they  do  not  provide  as  valuable  a 
forage  as  does  corn.  The  yields  are  small  and  the  crops  must 
be  cut  early  to  prevent  the  presence  of  too  large  an  amount  of 
fiber.  In  addition,  good  packing  is  necessary  to  prevent  large 
amounts  of  air  from  lodging  in  the  hollow  stalks  and  resulting 
in  undesirable  fermentations.  Similarly,  grass  crops  are  oc- 
casionally used  for  silage  where  the  locality  or  season  is  too 
damp  to  render  the  making  of  good  hay  possible.  Such 
practices  are  quite  infrequent  in  this  country. 

A  few  materials  of  relatively  high  water  content,  such  as 
beet  pulp,  beet  tops,  apple  pomace  and  prickly  pear,  are 
occasionally  used  for  silage  purposes.  Though  the  silo  renders 
the  utilization  of  these  materials  for  feeding  purposes  possible, 
they  do  not  furnish  the  best  quality  of  silage.  This  is  largely 
due  to  the  great  amount  of  water  present  and  the  difficulty 
of  preventing  deleterious  fermentations.  The  use  of  such 
materials  for  silage  must  always  be  limited  though  at  times 
it  may  be  recommended  as  a  conservation  process. 

Leguminous. — Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  ensile 
such  leguminous  crops  as  clover,  alfalfa,  soybeans  and  cow- 
peas,  but  the  results  have  not  been  very  satisfactory.  The 
presence  of  a  considerable  amount  of  protein  gives  a  good 
basis  for  the  occurrence  of  a  large  amount  of  putrefaction, 
while  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  soluble  carbohy- 
drates limits  the  formation  of  the  organic  acids  which  exert 
a  preservative  effect  on  corn  silage.  There  consequently 
appears  to  be  little  future  for  the  use  of  legumes  as  silage 


110  SI  L  AGE 

crops,  though  it  is  the  practice  in  some  sections  to  use  the 
pea-vine  waste  from  pea  canneries  for  silage  purposes.  This 
is  simply  a  conservation  process  which  renders  possible  the 
use  of  feed  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

Mixed. — It  is  recognized  that  crops,  such  as  corn  and  the 
sorghums,  which  contain  a  fair  amount  of  soluble  carbohy- 
drates, are  most  easily  preserved  as  silage.  One  of  their 
disadvantages,  however,  is  that  they  do  not  contain  quite  as 
much  protein  as  might  be  desirable.  Consequently,  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  combine  leguminous  crops  which 
are  not  easily  preserved  with  some  of  the  non-legumes  and  so 
get  a  silage  of  good  keeping  quaUty  and  fair  protein  content. 

Corn  has  been  ensiled  with  both  soybeans  and  cowpeas, 
and  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained  in  many  cases, 
though  occasionally  less  favorable  reports  are  given.  More 
information  on  tliis  problem  is  needed  from  both  the  practical 
and  the  experimental  standpoints.  Sometimes  the  crops  are 
grown  in  mixture;  sometimes  they  are  grown  separateh'  and 
then  mLxed  when  the  silo  is  being  filled.  The  sorghums  have 
been  also  used  along  with  the  legumes  in  much  the  same  way 
as  has  corn.  Another  mixed  crop  occasionally  used  for  silage, 
but  with  only  fair  success,  is  oats  and  field  peas  in  mixture. 


CHAPTER  XII 
SOILING   CROPS 

Soiling  crops  make  excellent  feeds  for  supplementing  pas- 
ture in  summer.  With  the  aid  of  soiling  crops  the  area  of 
pasture  needed  for  the  dairy  herd  can  be  reduced,  or  more 
animals  can  be  kept,  and  the  cost  of  milk  production  con- 
sequently lowered.  The  other  advantages  of  soiling  crops 
are  similar  to  those  resulting  from  the  feeding  of  silage  during 
summer,  with  the  addition  of  variety. 

A  very  wide  variety  of  crops  can  be  used  for  soiling  pur- 
poses, though  the  regions  in  which  some  of  them  can  be  used 
are  quite  limited.  It  is  important,  in  outlining  a  soiling 
system,  that  only  the  feeds  specially  adapted  for  growth  in 
the  locality  under  consideration  be  selected,  as  otherwise  cer- 
tain failure  will  result.  Care  should  be  taken  to  include  in 
the  system  as  large  a  number  of  legumes  as  possible. 

LEGUMINOUS 

The  leguminous  crops  suited  for  soiling  are  adapted  to  a 
fairly  wide  range  of  territory  and,  though  they  are  not  noted 
for  phenomenal  yields,  they  are  especially  valuable  for  the 
protein  which  they  provide.  The  use  of  leguminous  soiling 
crops  tends  to  reduce  the  amount  of  protein  concentrates 
needed  in  summer,  and  though  in  some  cases  not  quite  palat- 
able at  first,  they  are  generally  to  be  recommended. 

Alfalfa. — This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  soihng  crop 
among  the  legumes,  since  the  various  cuttings  may  all  be 
111 


112  SOTLTNG   CROPS 

Utilized  as  soiling.  Alfalfa  may  be  said  to  owe  its  importance 
as  a  summer  forage  crop  to  its  high  nutritive  value,  being 
especially  rich  in  ash  and  protein;  to  its  palatability ;  to  its 
large  total  yield  where  successfully  grown;  to  its  drought  re- 
sistance and  to  its  long  life  and  consequent  small  cost  of 
seeding. 

Alfalfa  may  be  used  to  furnish  green  feed  during  the  entire 
season  if  a  sufficient  acreage  be  available,  as  the  various 
cuttings  may  be  so  timed  as  to  keep  the  supply  of  succulent 
forage  continuous.  The  period  through  which  any  one 
cutting  is  suitable  is  limited,  however,  as  too  early  cutting 
decreases  the  yield,  while  delayed  cutting  will  result  not  only 
in  highly  fibrous  material  but  also  in  a  decrease  in  the  yield  of 
the  succeeding  crop.  Consequently,  in  herds  of  small  or 
medium  size,  it  is  not  possible  to  utilize  large  areas  of  alfalfa 
for  soiling. 

Generally  the  first  cutting  of  alfalfa  is  very  useful  in  the 
early  part  of  the  soiling  season  when  other  succulent  feeds  are 
not  readily  available.  The  later  cuttings  can  also  be  used  to 
advantage.  The  yields  secured  vary  from  lo  to  20  tons  per 
acre.  Green  alfalfa  stimulates  milk  secretion  to  a  consider- 
able degree,  but  the  main  drawback  to  its  use  is  that,  though 
it  is  fairly  palatable,  cows  will  not  consume  as  much  of  it  as 
they  will  of  some  other  soilages.  This  is  due,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  alfalfa  used  for  soiling  is 
fed  during  the  early  part  of  summer  when  pastures  are  still 
quite  good. 

Clovers. — The  clovers  are  extensively  grown  in  the  United 
States,  but  in  spite  of  this  fact  they  are  not  as  valuable  for 
soilage  as  alfalfa.  While  red  clover  is  more  widely  grown  in 
the  United  States  than  any  other  legume,  it  does  not  fill  an 
important  place  in  soiling  systems.  It  does  not  compare 
favorably  with  alfalfa  in  yield,  although  from  8  to  1 2  tons  of 
green  feed  per  acre  are  usually  secured.     It  can  be  fed  for  only 


LEGUMINOUS  113 

a  very  short  period  as  the  stems  quickly  become  woody. 
For  soiling  purposes  it  should  be  cut  just  before  the  blossoms 
appear,  as  at  this  period  it  yields  more  protein  and  less  fiber 
per  acre  than  at  any  other  time. 

Bloating  seldom  results  from  the  use  of  red  clover  as  a 
soilage,  although  it  is  advisable  that  the  green  feed  be  neither 
wet  nor  badly  wilted  when  used.  One  disadvantage  of  red 
clover  as  a  soiling  crop  is  that  when  grown  alone  it  frequently 
lodges.  The  second  crop  can  be  used  for  soiling,  though  better 
adapted  for  hay,  pasture  or  seed  production. 

Mammoth  red  clover  is  larger  and  coarser  than  red  clover 
and,  though  it  gives  heavier  yields,  is  not  quite  so  suitable  for 
soiUng.  It  is  also  less  palatable.  Alsike  clover  is  adapted 
primarily  to  low,  wet  land,  and  though  it  tends  to  lodge  and 
does  not  give  quite  as  large  yields  as  red  clover,  it  is  an  excel- 
lent soiling  crop.  It  produces  a  fine  leafy  forage,  and  since 
it  is  very  palatable,  cows  will  consume  large  quantities  of  it; 
it  also  stimulates  milk  production  to  a  considerable  degree. 
Crimson  clover,  though  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the 
south,  is  not  a  first-class  soiling  crop. 

Sweet  Clover. — The  value  of  this  plant  for  soiling  purposes 
is  in  dispute,  many  reporting  that  it  is  not  entirely  satisfac- 
tory while  others  have  lavished  praise  upon  it.  Yields  may 
vary  from  8  to  15  tons  per  acre,  but  the  stems  rapidly  become 
woody  and  the  feeding  period  is  relatively  short.  It  tends 
to  be  unpalatable  to  animals  when  fed  in  the  green  state,  but 
they  usually  become  accustomed  to  it  and  consume  it  with 
apparent  relish,  especially  if  the  feeding  of  it  is  started  early, 
before  the  bitter  principle,  cumarin,  has  developed  to  any 
considerable  extent.  The  annual  variety  is  perhaps  of  less 
value  than  the  biennial. 

Peas. — The  Canadian  field  pea  is  an  annual  legume  not 
very  suitable  as  a  soiling  crop  when  grown  alone.  The  yields 
arc  usually  less  than  7  tons  per  acre,  and  as  the  stems  are 


114  SOILING  CROPS 

slender  the  crop  tends  to  lodge.  The  Canadian  field  pea  is 
useful  in  mixtures.  In  the  case  of  the  flat  pea  it  is  frequently 
difficult  to  secure  a  stand,  and  as  the  green  forage  is  unpalata- 
ble it  is  not  used  for  soiling  purposes  to  any  considerable  extent. 

Vetches. — Two  vetches,  the  common  and  the  hairy,  have 
been  used  for  soiling  purposes,  but  the  common  vetch  is  not 
very  palatable  and  cannot  be  recommended.  The  hairy,  or 
winter,  vetch  is  a  very  slender-stemmed  winter  annual,  and 
though  it  yields  from  lo  to  12  tons  of  green  feed  per  acre 
it  tends  to  lodge  and  is  very  difficult  to  handle.  It  is  fairly 
palatable,  remarkably  free  from  disease  and  insect  pests  and 
resists  low  temperatures  and  droughts,  but  the  high  price  of 
seed  frequently  prevents  its  use  for  soiling  purposes.  Though 
trouble  may  be  experienced  in  obtaining  a  stand  where  the 
crop  has  not  been  grown  before,  yet  it  will  give  satisfactory 
results  under  ditficult  conditions  and  thrives  well  on  sandy 
soils. 

Cowpeas. — Cowpeas  are  best  suited  to  the  southern  states 
and  are  matured  successfully  in  the  northern  sections  only 
when  the  small  early  varieties  are  grown,  and  then  the  yield 
is  small.  While  it  is  a  larger-stemmed  plant  than  the  Cana- 
dian field  pea,  it  is  not  self-supporting  when  the  crop  is  heavy, 
and  is  therefore  best  suited  for  mixtures.  Cowpeas  furnish 
palatable  forage  during  the  latter  part  of  the  soiling  season. 
Average  yields  of  6  to  10  tons  per  acre  may  be  expected. 

Soybeans. — This  crop  is  well  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of 
conditions.  In  feeding  value,  green  soybean  forage  com- 
pares well  with  green  alfalfa,  and  the  plant  is  more  resistant 
to  heat  and  drought.  Where  clover  kills  out,  soybeans  may 
be  used  as  a  catch  crop,  although,  where  the  ground  is  poor 
good  cultivation  is  necessary  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  Soy- 
beans, which  are  becoming  more  widely  used  annually, 
mature  for  soiling  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and 
will  ordinarily  yield  5  to  7  tons  of  green  feed  per  acre.     For 


NON-LEGUMINOUS  115 

the  best  quality  of  soiling  the  seeding  should  be  heavy,  if 
bushels  per  acre  being  recommended. 

NON-LEGUMINOUS 

Com. — Corn,  being  the  main  crop  in  a  very  large  section  of 
the  United  States,  must  be  recognized  as  a  possible  soilage. 
Dent  corn  is  used  as  soiling  to  some  extent,  returns  rather  a 
large  yield  and  is  quite  palatable.  It  is  difficult  to  handle 
and  feed,  however,  and  is  not  cleaned  up  well  by  the  cows. 
Green  corn  cannot  be  safely  fed  until  rather  late  in  the  sum- 
mer, as  it  tends  to  cause  digestive  troubles,  but  during  the 
later  part  of  the  season  it  may  be  fed  until  ready  to  cut  for 
silage.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  feeding  green  corn 
does  not  give  the  cow  very  much  of  a  variety  as  compared 
to  the  winter  ration,  if  this  includes  corn  silage.  Flint  corn 
is  adapted  primarily  to  the  northern  part  of  the  corn  belt. 
It  does  not  return  as  large  a  yield  as  dent  corn  though  it  is 
equally  palatable. 

Sweet  Corn.— Sweet  corn  is  the  most  palatable  of  the  corns, 
and  is  used  for  soiUng  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  other 
varieties.  In  yield  it  ranks  close  to  dent  corn,  and  it  is  more 
satisfactory,  as  it  stays  green  longer  and  the  leaves  do  not  fall 
so  readily.  Neither  does  it  become  so  coarse  nor  is  it  so 
difficult  to  feed  as  is  dent  corn.  It  furnishes  very  good  soilage 
when  the  ears  have  been  removed  previous  to  feeding,  a  prac- 
tice followed  near  canning  factories.  The  length  of  the  feed- 
ing period  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  varieties  grown 
and  may  extend  throughout  a  considerable  part  of  the  late 
summer.  The  use  of  green  sweet-corn  stover  can  be  highly 
recommended  for  soiling  wherever  the  crop  is  grown  to  supply 
canning  factories. 

Lesser  Cereals. — The  lesser  cereals  are  grown  over  a  very 
wide  range  of  territory  and  are  used  to  some  extent  for  soiling. 
They  are  not  of  great  importance  for  this  purpose  except  when 


116  SOILING   CROPS 

grown  in  mixture  with  some  legume.  Oats  do  not  make  a 
very  successful  crop  when  grown  alone,  although  they  are 
highly  recommended  for  mixtures.  The  yield  secured  will 
average  about  7  tons  per  acre,  and  if  cut  early  it  makes  quite 
a  palatable  feed.  The  main  drawback  to  its  use  is  that  it 
ripens  rapidly  and  so  has  not  a  long  period  of  usefulness 
Barley  is  very  similar  to  oats  as  a  soiling  crop  and  cannot  be 
recommended  except  in  mixture,  especially  as  it  tends  to  ripen 
even  earher  than  oats. 

Winter  wheat  has  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent  as  an 
early  crop  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  seldom  yields  over  8 
tons  of  green  feed  per  acre.  It  matures  early,  however,  and 
where  only  Hmited  pasture  is  available  its  use  may  be  neces- 
sitated by  the  lack  of  other  early  green  feeds.  Winter  rye 
has  been  used  for  soiHng  more  than  any  other  of  the  lesser 
cereals.  It  gives  fair  yields,  averaging  perhaps  slightly  more 
than  wheat;  it  is  only  fair  in  palatabihty  but  can  be  used 
very  early  in  the  season  for  soilage  purposes.  It  is.  however, 
perhaps  more  valuable  for  early  pasture  than  for  soilage. 
Under  some  conditions  green  rye  forage  has  been  known  to 
impart  a  peculiar  and  disagreeable  flavor  to  milk. 

Millets. — The.  millets,  though  perhaps  not  of  primary  im- 
portance for  soiling  purposes,  have  been  used  fairly  exten- 
sively. The  foxtail  millets  include  common,  German,  Hun- 
garian and  many  other  varieties.  These  varieties  have  been 
used  successfully  for  soiling,  their  main  value  being  due  to 
the  fact  that  they  mature  late  in  the  fall  when  the  number 
of  other  crops  available  is  limited.  They  can  be  used  until 
the  time  of  frost.  Yields  vary  considerably,  but  10  to  14 
tons  of  green  millet  forage  per  acre  is  not  uncommon.  The 
foxtail  millets  vary  considerably  in  value  for  soiHng  purposes. 
The  common  millet  is  fine-stemmed  and  leafy,  giving  a  good 
quality  of  forage,  while  German  millet  is  coarse  and  relatively 
unpalatable  to  stock. 


NON-LEGUMINOUS  117 

Millet  matures  rathei  rapidly,  and  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  is  ready  for  harvesting  forty  to  fifty  days 
after  seeding.  To  secure  a  good  quality  of  forage,  hberal 
seeding  is  advisable,  2  to  4  pecks  per  acre  being  generally 
recommended. 

Japanese  Barnyard  millet,  or  Billion  Dollar  grass,  is  coarser 
than  any  of  the  foxtail  millets.  When  cut  before  the  plant 
heads  out,  it  is  fairly  palatable,  but  as  the  crop  matures  it 
becomes  woody  and  unpalatable.  Thick  seeding  should  be 
practiced  to  insure  a  fine-stemmed,  palatable  forage.  Pearl 
millet,  or  cat-tail  millet,  is  low  in  feeding  value  and  cannot 
be  recommended  for  use  as  a  soiling  crop. 

Sudan  Grass. — This  crop  is  more  especially  suited  to  the 
arid  and  semi-arid  regions,  although  it  is  being  grown  to  some 
extent  under  quite  different  conditions  and  with  fair  success. 
It  gives  rather  large  yields  of  feed  but  dries  out  very  rapidly 
and  is  apt  to  become  fibrous  and  unpalatable  when  mature, 
a  fact  which  minimizes  its  possible  value  as  a  soiling  crop. 
Under  some  conditions  it  may  be  used  successfully,  but 
generally  other  crops  will  be  more  profitable  for  soiling 
purposes. 

Amber  Cane. — Amber  cane  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
crops  for  soihng  purposes.  The  yield  is  large,  and  under 
average  conditions  10  to  16  tons  of  green  feed  per  acre  can  be 
obtained.  On  the  Iowa  State  College  Dairy  Farm  the  aver- 
age yield  over  a  period  of  seven  years  was  12  tons  per  acre — 
the  highest  yield  for  any  soiling  crop  used  on  the  farm.  The 
average  cost  of  production  was  also  lower  than  that  of  any 
other  crop  used  for  soiling  purposes. 

In  addition  to  yielding  heavily  at  low  cost  it  is  extremely 
palatable,  and  cows  will  consume  large  quantities  of  it — 70 
pounds  per  cow  per  day  being  generally  a  fair  allowance.  To 
insure  a  fine-stemmed  forage,  seeding  should  be  at  the  rate 
of  at  least  70  pounds  per  acre,  while  90  pounds  will  give  even 


118  SOILING  CROPS 

better  results.  The  crop  is  sometimes  difficult  to  handle, 
but  by  the  use  of  a  small  grain  hinder  this  trouble  can  be 
largely  avoided. 

Other  Sorghums. — A  few  other  sorghums,  such  as  orange 
cane,  kalir  corn,  feterita  and  milo,  are  occasionally  used  for 
soiling,  but  they  are  best  adapted  for  arid  conditions  and 
cannot  be  generally  recommended. 

It  has  been  proved  that  many  of  the  sorghums,  including 
Sudan  grass,  may  at  times  be  poisonous.  The  poisonous 
effects  are  generally  produced  in  the  second  crop  but  may 
occur  in  the  hrst.  Poisoning  does  not  occur  unless  the  crop 
has  been  stunted  by  frost,  drought  or  other  causes.  The 
poisonous  principle  is  prussic  acid,  which  is  produced  very 
soon  after  the  crop  is  stunted.  Sorghum  silage  that  has 
been  in  the  silo  for  a  week  or  two  and  dry  sorghum  fodder  do 
not  produce  poisoning  as  the  prussic  acid  that  may  have  been 
in  them  if  they  were  stunted  has  been  destroyed. 

Sorghum  poisoning  has  perhaps  received  too  much  publicity 
as  out  of  ten  thousand  men  raising  Sudan  grass  pasture  in 
Kansas  in  1919  only  three  reported  the  loss  of  a  few  animals 
from  this  cause.  No  cases  of  poisoning  have  ever  been  re- 
ported after  the  animals  had  finished  their  first  day  on  a 
Sudan  grass  pasture.  The  risks  of  poisoning  are  evidently 
obviated  if  the  animals  have  become  accustomed  to  the 
sorghum  forage  before  it  is  damaged.  This  has  been  shown 
at  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  by  continuing 
to  use  amber  cane  for  a  soiling  crop  for  some  time  after  it 
was  frosted  and  by  the  fact  that  cows  were  successfully  kept 
on  a  Sudan  grass  pasture  at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station 
for  some  time  after  the  forage  was  frosted. 

Grasses. — Such  crops  as  timothy,  red- top,  either  alone  or 
in  mixture,  brome  and  orchard  grass,  are  occasionally  used  for 
soiling  purposes,  but  they  cannot  be  generally  recommended, 
as  they  do  not  give  large  enough  yields  to  be  profitable,  are 


MIXED  119 

unpalatable,  and  contain  very  little  protein,  though  the 
presence  of  clover  in  a  mLxed  grass  crop  will  add  to  its  value. 
They  can  be  more  profitably  used  for  pasture  or  hay. 

Rape. — Though  rape  is  used  for  soiHng,  it  is  not  adapted  to 
this  purpose,  the  yields  obtained  arc  low,  it  may  cause  bloat 
and,  in  addition,  it  imparts  a  disagreeable  flavor  to  milk  at 
times. 

MIXED 

Mixtures  of  leguminous  and  non-leguminous  forage  crops 
have  been  widely  grown  for  soiling  purposes.  Many  of  these 
mixtures  have  much  to  recommend  them,  since  they  possess 
several  of  the  valuable  characteristics  of  each  of  the  other 
two  groups.  Their  value  depends  upon  the  suitabiUty  of  the 
individual  crops  for  the  locality  in  which  they  are  grown  and 
upon  their  adaptability  for  growth  in  mixtures.  The  mixed 
crops  studied  here  will  be  grouped  according  to  the  legumes 
they  contain. 

Pea  Mixtures. — Though  they  are  not  very  successful  when 
grown  alone,  Canadian  field  peas  are  valuable  when  grown  in 
a  mixture  for  soilage  purposes.  A  mixture  of  oats  and 
Canadian  field  peas  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  early 
soiling  crops.  Both  are  well  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of 
territory,  and  when  grown  together  they  give  moderately 
large  yields  of  very  palatable  feed.  Yields  of  from  5  to  10 
tons  of  green  feed  per  acre  have  been  secured  quite  frequently. 

This  crop  is  of  great  ser\ace  in  the  early  part  of  the  season. 
The  later  sowings  are  not  so  satisfactory,  as  the  oats  ripen  too 
rapidly  and  give  an  unpalatable  feed.  Best  results  are  ob- 
tained if  the  feed  is  cut  when  the  oats  are  in  the  milk  and  the 
peas  have  just  filled  the  pods.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  oats 
mature  more  rapidly  than  do  peas  it  is  good  practice  to  drill 
the  peas  about  a  week  before  the  oats  are  sown.  A  satis- 
factory stand  can  be  obtained  by  seeding  i|  bushels  each  of 
oats  and  peas.     The  amount  of  soiling  consumed  at  the  time 


120  SOILING   CROPS 

oats  and  peas  are  available  is  usually  not  large,  as  pasture  is 
fairly  plentiful  at  that  time,  but  in  spite  of  this  cows  will 
consume  from  40  to  60  pounds  of  the  green  feed  daily.  Cana- 
dian field  peas  give  less  satisfactory  results  when  grown  in 
mixture  with  barley  than  they  do  with  oats.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  barley  ripens  more  rapidly  than  oats. 

Vetch  Mixtures. — The  vetch  is  more  suitable  in  mixture 
than  when  grown  alone,  as  its  stems  are  not  self-supporting. 
Oats  and  vetch  have  at  times  been  recommended  in  place  of 
oats  and  Canadian  field  peas,  but  the  yields  are  generally 
smaller  and  the  high  price  of  vetch  seed  generally  prohibits 
its  use. 

Winter  rye  and  hairy  vetch  have  given  good  results  in 
mixture  for  soiling.  The  vetch  increases  the  yield,  protein 
content  and  palatability  of  the  forage.  This  mixture  will 
provide  green  feed  earlier  in  the  spring  than  will  any  other 
soiling  crop  containing  a  legume,  and  where  no  pasture  is 
available  its  use  may  be  advisable  where  the  cost  of  seeding 
is  not  prohibitive. 

Cowpea  Mixtures. — Cowpeas  have  to  some  extent  been 
grown  in  mixture  for  soiling  purposes,  especially  in  the  south, 
where  good  yields  have  been  obtained.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, cowpeas  cannot  be  generally  advocated  for  growth  with 
such  crops  as  corn  and  amber  cane.  The  cowpeas  do  add  to 
the  protein  content  of  the  feed,  but  where  the  other  crop  is 
sown  thickly,  a  practice  which  must  be  followed  for  success 
with  soiling,  the  cowpeas  are  smothered.  Thus  the  extra 
seeding  costs  do  not  result  in  any  appreciable  increase  in 
yield. 

Soybean  Mixtures. — Soybeans  have  been  grown  in  mix- 
tures very  similar  to  those  used  with  cowpeas  and  they  do 
rather  better.  On  the  whole,  however,  they  cannot  be  recom- 
mended in  mixture  as  they  give  results  not  far  different  from 
those  of  the  cowpeas. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

MISCELLANEOUS   SUCCULENT  ROUGHAGES 

Though  silage  and  soiling  crops  play  an  important  role  in 
inducing  economical  milk  production,  other  succulent  forages 
remain  to  be  considered.  The  majority  of  these  are  of  but 
little  importance,  but  one,  pasture,  is  deserving  of  consider- 
ably more  attention  than  it  generally  receives. 

PASTURE 

Good  succulent  pasture  is  the  feed,  par  excellence,  for  the 
dairy  cow.  The  forage  it  provides  is  not  only  bulky,  succulent 
and  palatable,  but  it  contains  the  nutrients  required  by  the 
dairy  cow  in  about  the  correct  proportions.  As  a  general 
rule,  it  may  be  said  that  no  matter  what  the  conditions  are 
some  pasture  should  always  be  provided  for  the  dairy  herd  as 
the  change  from  barn  feeding  is  very  beneficial  as  far  as  milk 
production  is  concerned,  and  the  exercise  the  cows  receive 
when  at  pasture  keeps  them  in  good  working  condition. 
When  the  cows  are  turned  to  pasture  in  spring  the  milk  flow 
is  maintained  at  a  higher  level  than  it  would  otherwise  be, 
but  the  benefits  of  the  pasturing  season  are  also  noticeable 
during  the  remainder  of  the  lactation  period. 

The  pasture  season  varies  considerably  in  length  in  various 
sections,  and  the  pastures  themselves  also  vary  greatly  in 
quahty,  but  it  may  be  safely  said  that  in  the  early  part  of 
the  pasture  season  no  additional  roughage  will  be  needed.  It 
is  well  also  to  cut  down,  and  in  most  cases  entirely  eliminate, 

121 


122  MISCELI.AXEOUS   SUCCUT.ENT   ROUGHAOES 

the  grain  ration  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  heaviest  producers.  This  cools  and  rests 
the  digestive  tract  and  puts  the  cow  in  better  shape  to  handle 
concentrates  when  it  again  becomes  necessary  to  feed  them. 

In  most  sections  of  the  country,  if  pasture  is  used  through- 
out the  summer  without  some  supplementary  succulence, 
such  as  silage  or  soiling  during  the  later  and  drier  part  of 
the  season,  from  i^  to  2^  acres  of  pasture  per  cow  will  be 
required.  Even  this  will  not  give  the  best  results,  however, 
and  it  is  generally  better  to  feed  some  additional  succulence. 
In  this  way  the  area  required  to  maintain  a  cow  will  be  re- 
duced and  the  cost  of  milk  production  will  be  favorably  al- 
tered. In  some  cases  the  pasture  is  entirely  eliminated,  but 
this  is  not  generally  advisable,  as  the  use  of  even  a  limited 
area  of  pasture  has  an  ultimate  beneficial  effect  on  the  health 
and  production  of  the  herd  which  cannot  be  obtained  in  any 
other  way. 

The  carrying  capacity  of,  and  the  returns  from,  a  pasture 
are  greatly  influenced  by  the  method  in  which  it  is  handled. 
It  should  be  well  drained  and  regularly  manured.  The  prac- 
tice of  feeding  grain  during  the  latter  part  of  the  pasturing 
season  helps  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  pastures.  The 
stock  should  not  be  turned  on  to  it  in  spring  until  the  land 
is  well  dried  and  growth  has  obtained  a  good  start.  Stocking 
the  pasture  before  there  is  a  good  cover  lessens  the  vitality 
of  the  forage,  and  trampling  on  wet  ground  does  much  damage. 
Overstocking  at  any  time  is  also  inadvisable.  Weeds  detract 
from  the  value  of  a  pasture  and  should  be  kept  down. 

A  great  variety  of  pastures  are  in  use,  the  commonest  being 
blue  grass.  A  good  blue-grass  pasture  is  excellent  in  spring 
and  provides  a  considerable  amount  of  good  green  forage  in 
fall,  but  generally  blue-grass  pastures  dry  out  badly  during 
the  summer  and  at  that  time  are  not  very  suitable  for  milk 
cows.     In  addition  to  blue  grass,  other  grasses,  such  as  Sudan 


PASTURE 


123 


124  MISCELLANEOUS  SUCCULENT  ROUGIL\GES 

grass,  are  used  as  pure  pasture  crops.  Such  usage  is  generally 
quite  definitely  limited  to  certain  sections  and  is  of  little  general 
importance,  though  frequently  of  great  value  in  certain  lo- 
calities. Legume  crops,  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  are  also 
used  in  the  same  way.  There  are  disadvantages  in  the  use  of 
legimiinous  pastures.  Bloat  frequently  occurs  on  such  pas- 
tures, considerable  amounts  of  feed  are  generally  wasted,  and 
frequently  the  growing  of  the  crop  for  hay  is  the  more  profit- 
able proposition. 

The  necessity  of  improvement  in  the  type  of  pastures  used 
for  dairy  cattle  is  quite  general,  and  one  broad  recommenda- 
tion will  cover  practically  all  conditions  except  in  the  drier 
sections.  The  best  pasture  for  dairy  cattle  is  one  consisting 
of  mixed  grasses  and  legumes,  as  a  mixture  of  grasses  will  pro- 
vide palatable  forage  over  a  longer  season  than  will  any  one 
of  its  individual  constituents.  The  addition  of  clovers  in- 
creases the  protein  content  of  the  feed,  and  the  greater  variety 
enhances  the  palatability  of  the  forage. 

Good,  well-tended  pastures  containing  a  variety  of  grasses 
and  legumes  are  one  of  the  greatest  assets  of  the  dairy  farm, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  during  hot,  dry  weather 
they  must  be  supplemented  with  other  succulent  forage. 

ROOT   CROPS 

Root  crops  are  not  much  in  evidence  for  the  feeding  of  dairy 
cattle  in  any  part  of  the  United  States,  though  they  are 
widely  used  in  the  cattle-feeding  and  dairying  sections  of 
Great  Britain  and  continental  Europe  and  there  is  no  doubt 
as  to  their  value  for  feeding  purposes. 

Roots,  such  as  sugar  beets,  mangels,  turnips  and  rutabagas, 
are  highly  nutritious  and  very  palatable.  They  have  a  bene- 
ficial laxative  effect  on  the  digestion  and  general  health  of  the 
animals  and  stimulate  milk  production.  Roots  are  charac- 
terized by  their  high  water  content,  75  to  90  per  cent,  and  the 


BEET   PULP  125 

small  amount  of  fiber,  fat  and  protein  which  they  contain. 
A  considerable  amount  of  the  nitrogen  present  is  not  in  the 
form  of  protein  and  so  is  of  doubtful  feeding  value.  The  nu- 
tritive ratio  of  roots  is  rather  narrower  than  that  of  silage. 
The  various  roots,  excepting  sugar  beets,  are  of  very  similar 
value  for  feeding  purposes.  Sugar  beets,  owing  to  their  high 
sugar  content,  have  a  greater  feeding  value  than  do  the 
other  root  crops. 

The  dry  matter  of  root  crops  is  a  httle  more  valuable  than 
that  of  silage,  as  a  rule.  Some  state  that  it  is  equal  in  value  to 
that  of  grain,  and  that  roots  may  even  replace  half  the  grain 
ordinarily  fed  in  a  ration  composed  of  grain,  mixed  hay  and 
silage.     This  is  overstating  the  value  of  the  roots. 

Roots  are  not  used  more  extensively  because  of  the  labor 
involved  and  the  difficulty  of  raising  them  and  the  conse- 
quent high  cost  of  their  production.  Corn  used  as  silage  pro- 
duces considerabl}'  more  dry  matter  per  acre  than  do  root 
crops,  and  in  addition  the  silage  has  the  advantage  of  economy 
of  production. 

Where  roots  can  be  produced  cheaply,  they  may  play  a  very 
important  part  in  the  dairy  ration.  They  are  especially 
valuable  as  appetizers,  due  to  their  succulent  palatable  na- 
ture, for  feeding  exhibition  or  show  stock,  and  for  cows  that 
are  being  given  a  heavy  ration  with  a  view  to  stimulating 
maximum  milk  production.  They  are  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  with  cows  being  forced  for  records  and  may  be  fed 
alone  or  with  silage.  Where  they  are  fed  alone,  50  to  100 
pounds  per  day  may  be  allowed. 

BEET  PULP 

Beet  pulp  is  the  residue  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  beet 
sugar.  The  wet  pulp,  2  tons  of  which  are  equivalent  in  feed- 
ing value  to  I  ton  of  silage,  is  sometimes  used  for  feeding  pur- 
poses near  the  sugar  factories,  but  owing  to  its  high  water 


126  :\iis(:ellaxeous  succulent  kou(]iiac;es 

content  and  consequent  danger  of  spoiling  and  diriicult}'  of 
transportation  it  is  seldom  used  far  from  the  point  of  pro- 
duction. 

Beet  pulp  is  usually  obtained  in  the  dried  form  and  is  a  \ery 
excellent  feed.  It  is  classed  by  some  as  a  concentrate,  but 
better  classed  as  a  roughage,  as  it  is  usuall>-  fed  as  part  of  the 
roughage  ration. 

The  dried  beet  pulp  is  sometimes  mixed  with  the  grain  ra- 
tion and  it  is  an  excellent  material  for  rendering  the  concen- 
trates bulky,  though  it  has  disadvantages  for  this  purpose, 
as  it  has  a  great  afhnity  for  water  and  may  abstract  moisture 
from  the  other  contents  of  the  digestive  tract  and  then  swell 
to  an  extent  that  may  induce  digestive  troubles.  It  is  usually 
soaked  and  fed  as  a  succulence;  this  is  the  preferable  method 
of  feeding  it.  It  should  be  soaked  for  ten  to  fourteen  hours 
before  feeding,  and  in  this  time  it  will  take  up  about  three 
times  its  weight  of  water.  It  can  be  used  in  this  form,  par- 
tially or  entirely,  to  replace  silage  or  roots.  When  fed  as  the 
sole  succulence,  from  4  to  8  pounds  of  the  dried  material 
per  day  can  be  given,  and  when  fed  with  silage,  2  to  4  pounds 
will,  as  a  rule,  be  sufficient.  It  has  a  cooling  effect,  aids  in 
keeping  the  digestive  tract  in  good  condition,  requires  but 
Httle  room  for  storage  and  is  a  very  excellent  succulence  to 
use,  especially  where  silage  or  roots  are  not  available  in  quan- 
tities large  enough  for  general  herd  feeding.  It  is  a  useful 
feed  for  stimulating  production,  and  owing  to  its  transporta- 
bility is  specially  valuable  on  the  show  circuit. 

POTATOES 

Potatoes  are  not  much  used  for  dairy-cattle  feeding,  but 
small  unsalable  ones  can  be  utilized  economically  for  this 
purpose.  They  can  take  the  place  of  silage  or  roots,  but  not 
more  than  20  pounds  per  head  per  day  should  be  used.  They 
are  valuable  mainly  on  account  of  the  carbohydrates  present. 


PUMPKINS  127 

The  dry  matter  in  them  is  probably  of  slightly  lower  nutritive 
value  than  that  in  silage.  There  is  a  slight  danger  of  cows 
choking  when  fed  potatoes,  and  too  large  quantities  will  result 
in  a  salvy  butter  of  poor  flavor. 

PUMPKINS 

Pumpkins,  when  available,  can  be  used  satisfactorily  for 
milk  production,  2§  pounds  of  pumpkins  being  about  equal 
to  I  pound  of  corn  silage.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  pumpkin 
seeds  tend  to  check  milk  production,  but  this  statement  is 
erroneous. 


CHAPTER  XTV 
DRY  ROUGHAGES 

The  dairy  cow  is  preeminently  a  consumer  of  rough  feeds, 
and  as  large  a  proportion  of  her  ration  as  possible  should  be 
made  up  of  roughages.  In  this  way  the  best  returns  can  be 
obtained  from  feeds  that  would  not  otherwise  have  a  high 
market  value.  The  roughages  used  in  the  feeding  of  dairy 
cattle  should,  as  a  rule,  be  grown  on  the  farm.  There  is  no 
more  economical  way  of  marketing  the  home-grown  hays  and 
other  roughages  than  by  way  of  the  dairy  cow,  provided  that 
those  grown  are  suitable  for  dairy  cattle. 

The  dry  roughages  supply  a  large  amount  of  the  bulk}' 
and  fibrous  part  of  the  ration  for  dairy  cows.  This  bulky 
material  is  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  digestive 
tract  of  young  animals,  and  in  the  case  of  older  animals  it  is 
essential  for  the  most  efficient  digestion  of  the  concentrated 
part  of  the  ration.  In  addition,  better  returns  can  usually  be 
obtained  by  feeding  these  roughages  to  the  dairy  cow  than 
could  be  obtained  by  disposing  of  them  in  any  other  way. 

LEGUMINOUS 

Leguminous  dry  roughages  are  especially  valuable  for  milk- 
producing  cows,  because  of  the  fact  that  besides  supplying 
bulk  in  the  ration  they  also  are  capable  of  providing  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  digestible  protein  and  other  nutrients, 
and  their  ash  content  is  usually  of  a  valuable  type,  as  it  is 
high  in  calcium  and  phosphorus.  Wherever  possible,  a 
128 


LEGUMINOUS  129 

leguminous  hay  should  be  included  in  the  ration  of  the  dairy- 
cow. 

Alfalfa  Hay. — This  is  undoubtedly  the  best  dry  roughage 
for  dairy  cows.  It  has  a  high  content  of  valuable  nutrients, 
especially  protein  and  ash;  it  has  a  good  effect  upon  the 
digestive  system  and  is  palatable.  These  properties,  in  addi- 
tion to  its  bulk,  render  it  an  excellent  material  for  balancing 
the  silage  and  corn  part  of  the  ration. 

For  best  results  the  alfalfa  hay  should  be  harvested  in  good 
condition.  One  of  the  main  points  to  remember  in  curing 
alfalfa  is  that  the  leaf  waste  should  be  kept  as  low  as  possible. 
The  leaves  are  the  most  nutritious  portion  of  the  plant,  and 
every  care  should  be  taken  to  cure  the  hay  with  a  miminum 
of  handhng,  as  each  time  the  hay  is  handled  some  of  the  leaves 
are  lost. 

The  relative  values  of  the  different  cuttings  of  alfalfa  de- 
pend, to  a  certain  extent,  upon  climatic  conditions.  The 
crops  with  the  fine  stems  and  large  proportion  of  leaves  are 
to  be  preferred.  At  the  Utah  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion it  was  found  that  no  marked  difference  in  value,  for  milk 
production,  between  first,  second  and  third  crop  alfalfa  ex- 
isted. It  is  true,  however,  that  under  western  conditions  a 
better  quality  of  alfalfa  hay  can  be  harvested  than  is  generally 
possible  further  east.  In  the  middle-west  and  east,  as  a 
general  rule,  the  first  cutting  of  alfalfa  tends  to  be  coarser  and 
less  lea,fy  than  the  later  cuttings,  and  so  is  not  of  as  high  a 
value  for  the  milk-producing  cow. 

Alfalfa  makes  the  most  satisfactory  hay  for  dairy  cows,  ex- 
celling in  palatabihty,  and  being  high  in  protein  and  ash, 
especially  calcium,  which  is  required  in  large  amounts  for 
milk  production.  Compared  to  bran,  alfalfa  hay  furnishes 
about  80  per  cent  as  much  digestible  protein,  three  times  as 
much  fiber  and  65  per  cent  as  much  net  energy. 

One  of  the  important  functions  of  alfalfa  hay  in  the  ration 


130  DRY   ROUGHAGES 

is  to  supply  protein,  but  the  limitations  to  its  use  should  be 
recognized.  Because  of  its  low  energy  value,  it  cannot  en- 
tirely replace  concentrates,  though  where  it  is  used,  the  grain 
ration  may  be  reduced  or  may  be  less  nitrogenous  in  character 
than  would  otherwise  be  required.  Cows  of  low  producing 
power  may  have  their  production  stimulated  to  the  highest 
degree  by  alfalfa  hay,  silage  and  very  httle  grain,  but  with 
good  producers  a  liberal  grain  allowance  is  also  needed. 

The  allowance  of  alfalfa  hay  for  milk  cows  should  be  about 
I  to  i§  pounds  of  hay  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight  daily. 
With  heavy  producing  cows  it  is  sometimes  found  ad\-isable 
to  cut  some  of  the  hay  into  j-inch  lengths,  moisten,  and  mix 
with  the  grain  before  feeding.  This  allows  of  the  fullest 
utilization  of  the  grain  allowance,  and  the  concentrates  may 
also  be  somewhat  reduced  under  such  circumstances. 

In  the  west,  large  numbers  of  cattle  are  reared  without  ever 
receiving  any  dry  roughage  but  alfalfa  hay.  In  spite  of  this, 
however,  it  must  be  stated  that,  in  the  majority  of  sections  in 
this  country,  alfalfa  hay  is  not  the  most  satisfactory  hay  for 
young  calves,  as  its  high  content  of  protein  and  ash  tends  to 
produce  digestive  and  urinary  disturbances. 

Alfalfa  meal,  like  alfalfa  hay,  is  a  roughage  and  not  a 
concentrate  and  cannot  replace  the  grain  ration.  Some  al- 
falfa meal  is  good,  but  in  other  cases  poor  quality  hay  is 
ground  up  and  sometimes  mixed  with  molasses  and  sold 
under  trade  names.  If  good  alfalfa  hay  is  obtainable,  alfalfa 
meal  should  not  be  used ;  ordinarily  the  dairy  farmer  can  pro- 
duce roughage  more  economically  than  he  can  purchase  it. 

Clover  Hays. — The  hays  from  the  various  clovers  are 
worthy  of  great  consideration  for  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows. 
As  a  whole  they  may  be  ranked  as  of  about  80  per  cent  the 
value  of  alfalfa  hay,  from  the  standpoint  of  digestible  protein 
content,  though  they  are  higher  than  alfalfa  in  net  energy 
value. 


LEGUMINOUS  131 

Red-clover  hay  is  a  valuable  feed  for  milk-producing  cows 
and  under  conditions  of  cheap  protein  concentrates  its  value 
compared  to  alfalfa  hay  is  relatively  increased.  The  feeding 
of  red  and  other  clover  hays  is  very  similar  to  that  of  alfalfa 
hay.  Red-clover  hay  is  more  valuable  for  calves  than  is 
alfalfa.  Mammoth  red  clover  makes  a  rather  poorer  hay  than 
does  red  clover,  as  it  is  coarser,  larger-stemmed  and  not 
quite  so  palatable. 

Alsike  clover  is  a  fine-stemmed,  palatable  hay  that  ranks 
second  to  alfalfa  hay  in  feeding  value  It  is  eaten  with  less 
waste  than  other  clover  hays  and  is  the  best  hay  for  young 
calves. 

The  hay  from  crimson  clover  is  important  in  the  south  and 
is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  that  from  red  clover.  It  should  be 
cut  by  the  time  the  flowers  at  the  base  of  the  most  advanced 
heads  have  faded,  otherwise  the  hairs  on  the  heads  and  stems 
become  hard  and  wiry  and  consecjuently  are  apt  to  form  balls 
in  the  digestive  tract  and  thus  cause  intestinal  trouble. 

Sweet-clover  Hay. — Not  much  experimental  work  has  been 
done  so  far  on  the  feeding  value  of  sweet  clover,  though  some 
rank  it  close  to  alfalfa  hay.  Stock  usually  object  to  sweet 
clover  at  the  start  when  it  is  in  the  fresh  green  state.  This 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  bitter  principle,  cumarin.  In 
the  curing  of  the  hay  this  objectionable  substance  is  perhaps 
destroyed  to  some  extent,  and  the  hay  is  consequently  more 
palatable  than  is  the  green  feed.  It  supplies  more  net  energy 
and  crude  protein  but  less  digestible  true  protein  than  does 
alfalfa  hay.  One  of  the  main  objections  to  the  use  of  sweet 
clover  hay  for  dairy  cattle  is  that  it  tends  to  become  coarse 
and  many  of  the  leaves  are  lost  in  curing. 

Field-pea  Hay. — Field-pea  hay  is  approximately  equal  to 
alfalfa  hay  for  feeding  purposes.  It  is  rather  difhcult  to  cure, 
and  consequently  field  peas  are  grown  mainly  in  mixture. 

Cowpea  Hay. — This  hay  is  difficult  to  cure  but  is  used   to 


132  DRV    ROUGH,\GES 

a  considerable  extent  in  the  south.  It  is  thought  to  be  about 
equal  to  alfalfa  hay  for  feeding  purposes. 

Soybean  Hay. — It  is  about  equal  in  feeding  value  to 
alfalfa  hay  but  it  is  difficult  to  cure.  In  the  past  it  has  been 
used  mainly  in  the  south,  but  the  cultix'ation  of  the  soybean 
for  forage  purposes  is  extending  quite  rapidly. 

Leguminous  Straws. — Where  leguminous  crops  are  threshed, 
as  alfalfa  or  clover  for  seed,  or  soybeans  for  the  grain  to  be  used 
for  stock-feeding  or  the  manufacture  of  oil,  there  is  left  a 
straw  which  has  some  feeding  value.  The  leguminous  straws 
are  much  lower  in  feeding  value  than  the  corresponding  hays, 
though  much  better  than  the  cereal  straws.  Soybean  straw 
for  example,  contains  only  2.8  per  cent  of  digestible  crude 
protein  and  43.5  per  cent  of  total  digestible  nutrients,  while 
the  corresponding  values  for  the  hay  are  11.7  per  cent  of 
digestible  crude  protein  and  53.6  per  cent  of  total  digestible 
nutrients.  The  greatest  loss  is  in  the  protein,  as  this  is  con- 
centrated to  a  considerable  degree  in  the  seeds  which  are 
removed. 

NON-LEGUMINOUS 

The  non-leguminous  roughages  available  for  the  feeding  of 
dairy  cattle  have,  as  a  rule,  little  to  recommend  them.  They 
are  unpalatable  and  poor  in  protein  and  other  digestible  nu- 
trients; and  though  they  generally  have  a  high  ash  content 
it  is  poor  in  calcium  and  phosphorus. 

In  addition,  the  non-leguminous  roughages  are  usually 
harvested  and  cared  for  in  a  very  haphazard  way  and  con- 
sequently deteriorate  rapidly.  In  spite  of  this,  however, 
a  very  large  amount  of  these  feeds  is  used  for  the  feeding  of 
milk  cows  in  many  sections.  Though  they  have  little  value 
when  used  as  the  sole  roughage,  yet  some  of  them  can  at 
times  be  used  to  advantage  when  limited  amounts  are  fed  with 
more  valuable  roughages. 


NON-LEGUMINOUS  133 

Corn  Fodder. — Corn  fodder,  though  not  as  valuable  as  corn 
silage,  makes  a  fairly  good  carbonaceous  roughage.  Where  it 
has  to  be  fed,  some  nitrogenous  hay  should  also  be  used. 
Where  there  is  silage  and  also  some  fodder,  it  is  often  advisable 
to  give  the  cows  a  little  fodde::  in  addition  to  their  silage 
They  will  relish  small  quantities  of  it,  and  a  good  plan  is  to 
give  the  cows  access  to  it  when  out  for  exercise  in  the  lots. 

Com  Stover. — Owing  to  the  absence  of  the  ears,  corn 
stover  is  of  considerably  less  value  than  the  fodder,  but  it 
can  be  used  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  recommended  for  the 
corn  fodder. 

Cereal  Straws. — The  cereal  straws,  being  poor  in  protein, 
low  in  digestibility  and  unpalatable,  are  not  suitable  roughages 
for  milk  cows.  Their  feeding  value  is  very  low  and  they 
rank  as  follows:  oat,  barley,  wheat,  rye,  in  decreasing  value. 

Timothy  Hay. — This  roughage  is  too  fibrous  and  poor  in 
protein  to  make  a  good  cow-feed.  Its  feeding  value  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  oat  straw,  and  it  should  not  be  fed  to 
milking  cows.  Frequently  it  can  be  sold  for  as  high  a  price 
as  it  takes  to  buy  alfalfa.  The  feeding  of  timothy  to  dairy 
cows  is  far  too  common  at  present,  and  everything  possible 
should  be  done  to  discourage  this  practice. 

Sudan-grass  Hay. — This  recently  introduced  crop,  which  is 
especially  adapted  to  the  drier  regions,  is  increasing  in  popu- 
larity in  some  sections.  As  far  as  protein  supply  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  about  equal  to  timothy  hay,  but  it  provides  en- 
ergy about  one-third  more  efficiently  than  does  timothy  and 
is  more  palatable.  It  is  not  a  satisfactory  hay  for  milk  cows, 
but  should  prove  fairly  valuable  for  dry  cows  or  young  stock. 

The  Sorghums. — Both  the  sweet,  or  saccharine  sorghums, 
or  sorghos,  and  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  are  valuable 
forage  crops  in  the  drier  regions,  especially  in  the  southwest. 
If  they  are  drilled  in  and  intended  for  forage,  they  are  cut 
before  they  are  fully  matured  and  shocked  in  the  same  man- 


134  DRY   ROUGHAGES 

ner  as  corn.  They  then  produce  a  valuable  fodder.  If  grown 
for  seed,  they  are  allowed  to  mature  before  shocking,  and  the 
stover  obtained  after  threshing  is  not  valueless.  Kafir  fodder 
and  stover  are  the  most  valuable  dry  roughages  of  the  grain 
sorghum  group  and  have  about  the  same  value  as  the  corre- 
sponding corn  products,  while  the  forages  produced  from 
feterita  are  of  somewhat  lower  value,  and  milo,  kaoliang  and 
shallu  come  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale.  Sometimes  these 
crops  are  sown  broadcast;  this  gives  a  thick  crop  of  fine- 
stemmed  forage  which  when  cut  with  a  mower  gives  a  valuable 
hay. 

Of  the  sweet  sorghums,  amber  cane  is  the  best  known,  as  it 
can  be  grown  over  a  wide  range  of  territory,  including  all  of 
the  corn  belt.  It  can  be  handled  in  the  same  way  as  corn 
fodder  and,  like  all  the  other  sorghum  forages,  it  is  not  very 
high  in  protein  and  is  best  suited  for  the  feeding  of  dry  stock. 

The  Millets. — Of  the  large  variety  of  millets,  none  is  really 
valuable  as  dry  roughage  for  dairy  cattle  as  they  are  all  low 
in  protein.  The  foxtail  millets,  including  the  common,  Hun- 
garian and  German  types,  are  perhaps  the  best,  and  they  are 
of  some  value  in  the  drier  regions  of  the  northwest.  They 
should  be  cut  early  for  hay,  before  the  hard  seeds  are  formed. 
The  Japanese  Barnyard  millet  gives  large  yields  of  coarser 
feed,  while  the  broom-corn  millets  give  a  low  yield  of  very 
woody  forage  which  is  practically  valueless  for  dairy  cattle. 

Buckwheat  Straw. — The  straw  of  buckwheat  contains  more 
digestible  crude  protein  but  less  digestible  carbohydrate 
equivalent  than  the  cereal  straws.  It  is  of  very  low  value 
and  may  cause  digestive  disturbances  if  fed  in  liberal  amounts 
and  therefore  should  not  be  offered  to  dairy  cattle. 

Flax  Straw. — This  is  of  low  value,  and  the  straw  from 
green  immature  plants  may  contain  enough  prussic  acid  to  be 
dangerous  when  fed  to  live  stock.  It  should  not  be  used  with 
dairy  cattle. 


MIXED  135 


MIXED 


Only  a  few  mixed  dry  roughages  belong  to  this  group,  but 
they  are  quite  valuable,  especially  where  alfalfa  or  clover  hays 
are  not  available. 

Mixed  Hay. — Hay  from  niLxed  grasses  is  better  than 
timothy  hay,  and  if  there  are  also  some  legumes  present  it 
makes  a  fairly  satisfactory  feed.  Mixed  hay,  even  with 
legumes  present,  is  not  as  good  as  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  for 
milk  production,  and  when  it  is  used,  rather  more  nitrogenous 
concentrates  will  have  to  be  fed  than  would  be  necessary  if  a 
legume  hay  were  provided.  Mixed  hay  is  good  for  young 
calves,  especially  if  there  are  plenty  of  legumes  present. 

Oat  and  Pea  Hay. — A  mixture  of  oats  and  Canadian  field 
peas,  in  equal  parts  and  drilled  in  at  the  rate  of  3  bushels  per 
acre,  will  yield  a  good  hay  for  dairy  cows.  The  best  results 
are  obtained  when  the  crop  is  cut  just  as  the  oats  are  entering 
the  dough  stage.  Though  not  quite  as  good  as  alfalfa  or  clover 
hay  it  makes  an  excellent  substitute,  and  is  especially  valuable 
where  a  crop  of  hay  has  to  be  obtained  in  the  season  in  which 
the  seeding  is  done. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE   CEREAL   GRAINS   AND   THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 

The  concentrates  include  a  very  large  number  of  materials 
of  varied  characteristics.  They  can  be  grouped  according  to 
their  general  character,  frequently  according  to  their  content 
of  crude  protein.  It  is  perhaps  better,  however,  to  consider 
them  on  the  basis  of  their  plant  source,  cereals,  legumes  and 
oilseeds. 

The  cereal  grains  form  one  of  the  most  important  groups  of 
feeding  stuffs  in  the  United  States,  and  their  scope  is  world- 
wide. They  are  generally  considered  as  feeds  used  largely 
to  provide  energy,  but  many  of  their  by-products  are  also 
valuable  sources  of  protein.  Most  emphasis  is  generally 
put  on  corn,  but  in  certain  sections  of  the  country  other 
cereal  grains  are  of  more  importance  than  corn. 

CORN  AND   ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 

The  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  exceeds,  in  acreage, 
yield  of  grain,  and  value,  all  the  other  cereals  combined;  it 
must  therefore  be  rehed  on  as  the  main  grain  for  the  feeding 
of  animals  in  this  country,  especially  throughout  the  corn 
belt. 

Of  the  six  races  of  maize  grown,  only  three  are  of  importance 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  feeder  of  dairy  cattle.  These  are 
dent,  flint  and  sweet  corn.  The  dent  and  flint  corns  differ 
chiefly  in  the  condition  of  the  starch  which  they  contain. 
Sweet  corn  contains  more  crude  protein  and  fat  and  less  car- 
bohydrate than  the  other  races.  Before  ripening,  sweet  corn 
136 


CORN  AND   ITS   BY-PRODUCTS  137 

contains  a  large  quantity  of  sugar,  which  is  later  changed  to 
starch;  and  though  this  sugar  is  not  more  nutritious  than 
starch  it  does  increase  the  palatability  of  the  corn. 

Sometimes  the  question  of  a  difference  in  feeding  value 
between  yellow  and  white  corn  arises.  In  general  the  chemical 
composition  of  white  corn  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of 
yellow  corn,  though  there  may  possibly  be  a  difference  in  the 
constituents  of  the  proteins  of  yellow  and  white  corns.  Recent 
investigations  also  indicate  that  yellow  corn  perhaps  contains 
sufficient  of  the  vitamine,  Fat-Soluble  A,  for  normal  growth 
and  reproduction,  while  white  corn  contains  none  of  it.  If 
this  proves  to  be  correct,  it  will  be  of  great  significance  where 
corn  constitutes  the  major  portion  of  the  ration  of  animals 
and  will  again  emphasize  the  necessity  for  variety  in  the 
ration.  Where  the  ration  is  varied  in  character  there  are  no 
practical  differences  in  the  feeding  values  of  yellow  and  white 
corn,  though  popular  opinion  frequently  attributes  a  slightly 
higher  value  to  the  yellow  variety. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  yellow  color  of  butter 
fat  is  due  to  pigments,  the  carotinoids,  derived  from  the  feed, 
but  yellow  corn  does  not  appear  to  give  any  more  color  to 
dairy  products  than  does  white  corn.  This  is  probably 
because  the  color  of  yellow  corn  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
xanthophylls  rather  than  of  carotin. 

The  corn  grain  has  a  low  protein  content,  and  of  the  pro- 
tein present  about  58  per  cent  is  zein  and  30  per  cent  glutelin. 
Zein  is  an  inefficient  protein  as  it  lacks  tr^'ptophane  and  lysine, 
but  it  has  been  found  that  the  mixed  proteins  of  corn  are  more 
efficient  than  those  of  oats  or  wheat.  Corn  is  also  deficient 
in  mineral  constituents,  especially  hme,  and  sometimes 
phosphates.  These  are  limitations  which  must  be  borne  in 
mind  in  the  feeding  of  corn,  and  a  variety  of  constituents  from 
other  plant  sources  should  be  fed  with  the  corn  to  overcome 
these  deficiencies. 


138     THE    CEREAL    GRAINS    AND    THEIR    BY-PRODUCTS 

The  handling  of  soft  corn  is  a  problem  that  occasionally  con- 
fronts the  dairy  farmer.  The  best  solution  is  to  put  it  in  the 
silo,  but  where  it  is  not  possible  to  ensile  the  crop  the  grain 
should  be  fed  as  soon  as  possible.  Drying  outfits  are  now  to 
be  had,  and  good  results  have  been  obtained  with  some  of 
them.  Fairly  satisfactory  results  can  also  be  obtained  in  the 
preservation  of  soft  corn  through  the  use  of  salt.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  one-half  to  one  pound  of  salt  per  hundred 
pounds  of  soft  corn  be  used  at  cribbing  time. 

Soft  corn  has  not  as  high  a  feeding  value  as  an  equal  weight 
of  well-matured  corn,  but  when  calculated  on  the  dry-matter 
basis  there  is  little  difference  between  them,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  soft  corn  cannot  be  utilized  economically  by  the 
dairy  cow  if  it  is  fed  carefully  and  with  the  proper  supplements. 
The  main  difiticulty  in  its  use  is  the  problem  of  storage,  as  the 
high  moisture  content  is  favorable  to  mold  growth. 

Where  corn  is  stored  in  large  quantities,  the  shrinkage  must 
be  taken  into  consideration  as  it  may  amount  to  a  considerable 
item.  With  good  corn  the  shrinkage  from  November  to 
April  amounts  to  about  12  per  cent,  while  during  the  months 
of  November  and  December  it  is  generally  over  5  per  cent. 
Good  corn  is  generally  figured  on  the  basis  of  14  per  cent  of 
moisture.  Shelled  corn  does  not  keep  as  well  in  bulk  as 
does  ear  corn,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  proper 
ventilation  for  the  removal  of  moisture. 

Com  Preparations. — In  the  corn  belt,  corn  is  generally  the 
most  economical  concentrate  for  providing  energ}-  that  is 
available  for  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle.  On  account  of  the 
limitations  which  have  already  been  pointed  out,  corn  should 
not,  as  a  rule,  be  used  as  the  sole  concentrate  for  milk  cows 
or  other  stock.  This  is  especially  important  where  the  corn 
plant  also  provides  part  of  the  roughage  used  in  the  ration. 
There  are  several  forms  in  which  corn  grain  may  be  fed  to 
dairy  cattle,  and  these  vary  considerably  in  their  efficiency. 


CORN  AND   ITS   BY-PRODUCTS  139 

Ear  Corn. — The  feeding  of  ear  corn  to  dairy  cows  is  much 
too  common  at  the  present  time.  About  20  per  cent  of  ear 
corn  is  cob,  which  contains  about  30  per  cent  of  fiber  and 
pentosans — carbohydrates  of  doubtful  feeding  value.  No 
extensive  work  has  as  yet  been  done  in  comparing  ear  corn 
with  other  corn  preparations  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows,  but 
experiments  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
indicate  that  ear  corn  is  about  5  per  cent  less  valuable  for 
milk  production  than  is  cracked  corn,  when  equal  amounts  of 
corn-grain  dry-matter  are  fed;  in  other  words,  100  pounds 
of  ear  corn,  when  fed  to  dairy  cows,  would  induce  the  produc- 
tion of  about  5  per  cent  less  milk  than  would  80  pounds  of 
cracked  corn,  or  105  pounds  of  ear  corn  are  only  equal  to 
80  pounds  of  cracked  corn  for  milk-producing  purposes. 

Shelled  Corn. — This  corn  preparation  is  quite  widely  used 
and  is  slightly  better  than  ear  corn,  but  not  as  efficient  as 
cracked  corn  for  milk-producing  purposes. 

Cracked  Corn. — One  of  the  best  preparations  of  the  corn 
grain  for  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  is  cracked  corn,  as  the 
cracking  renders  it  more  palatable  and  probably  allows  rather 
more  complete  digestion.  Where  the  grain  ration  contains 
plenty  of  bulky  constituents,  cracked  corn  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  any  of  the  other  preparations,  and  under  those 
conditions  it  is  generally  an  economical  source  of  energy  either 
for  the  fattening  of  cows  preparatory  to  freshening  or  for  milk 
production. 

Corn  Meal. — There  is  no  definite  line  of  demarcation 
between  corn  meal  and  cracked  corn.  From  work  done  at  the 
Iowa  Station,  it  appears  that  there  is  no  advantage  to  be 
gained  by  extreme  fineness  of  grinding.  Fine  corn  meal  and 
cracked  corn  have  similar  values  for  milk  production,  but 
the  more  finely  ground  material  has  disadvantages.  It  is  a 
heavy  feed  which  is  more  difficult  to  digest  than  the  cracked 
corn,  unless  a  greater  proportion  of  bulky  constituents  be 


140     THE    CEREAL    GRAINS    AND    THEIR    BY-PRODUCTS 

included  in  the  grain  ration.  There  is.  therefore,  no  advantage 
to  be  obtained  from  the  expenditure  of  the  extra  power  required 
to  bring  the  feed  into  the  tine  state  of  division  in  which  it 
exists  in  corn  meal. 

Corn-and-coh  Meal. — In  spite  of  the  highly  indigestible  cob, 
corn-and-cob  meal  is  an  exceptionally  valuable  feed.  WTiere 
there  are  no  other  bulky  constituents  in  the  grain  ration,  corn- 
and-cob  meal  is  as  valuable  as  cracked  corn  for  milk-producing 
purposes;  but  where  light,  bulky  constituents,  such  as  ground 
oats  and  bran,  are  included  in  the  grain  ration,  corn-and-cob 
meal  is  20  per  cent  less  valuable  than  cracked  corn.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ground  particles  of  indigestible  cob 
are  of  no  nutritive  value  and  do  not  increase  the  efficienc\-  of 
the  ration  when  other  bulky  constituents  are  present,  but 
when  other  light  feeds  are  absent  the  particles  of  cob  help  to 
loosen  up  the  grain  niLxture  and  so  render  the  corn-and-cob 
meal  of  higher  value — not  through  adding  nutrients  to  the 
ration,  but  simply  by  their  mechanical  effect. 

Com  By-products. — Though  corn  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
of  grains,  it  is  valuable  also  for  other  reasons.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  starch,  glucose  and  alcohol  from  corn,  several 
by-products  are  obtained  which  are  at  times  valuable  adjuncts 
to  the  dairy  ration,  especially  as  some  of  them  contain  a  high 
percentage  of  protein.  Quite  frequently  some  of  these 
protein  feeds  are  easily  available  in  the  corn  regions,  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  it  is  not,  as  a  rule,  advisable  to 
use  them  as  the  sole  protein  supplement  where  corn  grain 
and  corn  silage  form  a  large  part  of  the  ration,  as  their  use 
does  not  make  up  for  the  deticiencies  of  the  corn  plant  in  the 
way  of  ash  and  certain  constituents  of  the  proteins. 

Hominy  Feed. — In  the  manufacture  of  hominy  grits,  which 
are  used  for  human  consumption,  or  of  brewers'  grits,  the 
by-product  known  as  hominy  feed  is  obtained.  It  is  also 
known  as  hominy  meal  or  chop,  and  is  a  mixture  of  the  bran 


CORN   AND   ITS   BY-PRODUCTS  141 

coating,  the  germ  and  a  part  of  the  starchy  portion  of  the 
corn  kernel.  It  contains  much  more  fat,  sHghtly  more  fiber 
and  less  nitrogen-free  extract  than  does  corn.  Like  corn,  it 
has  a  low  content  of  protein.  As  it  is  light  and  bulky  it  is  in 
some  ways  preferable  to  corn  meal  but  it  is  less  palatable. 
Hominy  feed  is  less  digestible  than  corn  meal,  but  it  keeps 
well  and  is  remarkably  free  from  adulteration.  It  is  about 
equal  to  corn  in  feeding  value  and  frequently  forms  an  econom- 
ical source  of  carbohydrates. 

Germ-oil  Meal. — In  the  manufacture  of  starch  from  corn, 
the  germs  are  removed  and  dried  and  most  of  the  oil  expressed. 
The  resulting  material  is  sold  as  corn  oil-cake  or  ground  and 
sold  as  corn  oil-cake  meal,  germ-oil  meal  or  corn-germ  meal. 
This  feed  contains  less  protein  and  more  fat  than  does  gluten 
feed  and  has  a  fairly  good  ash  content.  Its  feeding  value  is 
fairly  well  indicated  by  its  composition.  However,  it  is  not 
a  very  satisfactory  concentrate  for  dairy  cattle,  as  it  is  unpal- 
atable, and  owing  to  its  high  fat  content  it  tends  to  become 
rancid  and  so  cannot  be  stored  for  any  great  length  of  time. 

Corn  Bran. — The  corn  bran  is  the  outer  layer  removed  from 
the  kernel  in  the  manufacture  of  starch  or  glucose.  It  con- 
tains less  crude  protein  and  ash  and  more  liber  and  total 
digestible  nutrients  than  does  wheat  bran,  and  its  protein  is 
not  very  easily  digested.  It  is  usually  an  expensive  feed,  but 
Httle  of  it  is  now  found  on  the  market  as  it  is  generally  mixed 
with  other  corn  by-products.  Where  used  as  a  protein  sup- 
plement for  milk  cows,  it  is  about  equal  in  value  to  wheat  bran. 

Gluten  Meal. — When  the  bran,  the  germ  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  starch  have  been  removed  from  the  corn  grain 
in  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  glucose,  there  is  left  the 
gluten  and  a  solution  of  ash  and  other  materials  known  as 
corn  solubles.  All  of  the  gluten  was  at  one  time  dried  and 
sold  as  gluten  meal  or  corn-gluten  meal,  but  now  the  corn 
solubles  are  generally  added,  as  this  improves  the  ash  content 


142      11  no    CKRKAL    GRAINS    AND    THEIR    BY-PRODUCTS 

of  the  gluten.  Gluten  meal  is  a  heavy  feed,  having  a  tendency 
to  cause  digestive  troubles,  and  so  should  be  used  only  in 
limited  quantities  and  with  suitable  admixtures  of  bulky  feeds. 

Gluten  Feed. — Gluten  feed  or  corn-gluten  feed  is  a  mixture 
of  gluten  meal  and  corn  bran  and  usually,  though  not  always, 
contains  the  corn  solubles.  It  is  a  feed  high  in  protein,  but 
it  is  much  safer  to  feed  than  is  gluten  meal  as  the  corn  bran 
renders  it  comparatively  light  and  bulky.  Gluten  feed  is  the 
best-known  and  most  widely  used  of  the  corn  by-products 
but,  though  it  frequently  is  an  economical  source  of  protein 
it  should  not  be  used  as  the  sole  supplement  to  corn. 

Corn-distillers^  Grains. — This  is  the  residue  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  alcohol  and  distilled  liquors  from  corn.  This 
residue  contains  the  crude  protein,  fiber,  fat  and  more  insoluble 
portions  of  the  grain.  A  small  part  of  this  material  is  used 
as  distillers'  wet  grains,  but  owing  to  the  large  amount  of 
moisture  it  contains,  with  the  consequent  expense  of  trans- 
portation and  tendency  to  fermentation,  it  is  used  in  this  form 
only  near  the  point  of  production.  It  is  a  useful  feed  if 
properly  handled,  but  if  care  is  not  taken  it  will  ferment  and 
may  then  cause  digestive  troubles.  This  fermenting  material 
when  left  in  the  barns  will  also  impart  disagreeable  odors  to  the 
milk. 

When  dried,  the  residue  is  sold  as  distillers'  dried  grains  and 
is  a  valuable  concentrate.  It  contains  about  twice  as  much 
crude  protein  and  three  times  as  much  fat  as  wheat  bran  and 
has  a  feeding  value  superior  to  that  of  gluten  feed.  It  is 
palatable  and  its  bulky  nature  renders  it  specially  valuable. 

OATS   AND   THEIR   BY-PRODUCTS 

The  oat  crop  is  grown  over  a  wider  area  in  the  United  States 
than  any  other  grain.  Though  used  to  a  considerable  extent 
for  human  consumption  its  importance  as  a  source  of  feed  for 


WHEAT   AND   ITS   BY-PRODUCTS  143 

dairy  cattle  is  obvious,  though  its  by-products  are  of  little 
importance. 

Oats. — The  oat  grain  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the 
human  dietary,  but  very  large  amounts  of  it  are  available  for 
the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle.  Oats  are  higher  in  crude  protein, 
fiber  and  ash  than  corn,  and  almost  equal  to  it  in  fat  content. 
There  are  no  better  grains  than  oats  for  milk-producing  cows, 
and  practically  the  only  limit  which  needs  to  be  put  on  their 
use  is  that  due  to  economy.  Though  their  use  for  general 
herd  feeding  is  often  limited  by  their  price,  it  will  usually  be 
found  advisable  to  include  oats  in  the  ration  of  high  producing 
cows,  and  those  that  are  well  along  in  pregnancy  or  in  poor 
condition.  Oats  are  very  palatable,  especially  when  ground, 
and  the  grinding  increases  their  bulk  to  a  marked  degree. 
The  use  of  oats  in  the  feeding  of  calves  is  also  to  be  recom- 
mended, but  with  young  calves  the  whole  grain  is  preferred. 

Oat  By-products. — There  are  several  by-products,  including 
oat  hulls,  and  oat  shorts  or  middlings,  made  in  the  manufacture 
of  oatmeal,  but  they  are  of  httle  moment  in  the  feeding  of 
dairy  cattle,  except  that  they  are  frequently  used  as  con- 
stituents of  mixed  feeds.  Almost  one-third  of  oat  hulls  con- 
sists of  crude  fiber,  and  they  have  little  feeding  value.  They 
are  usually  incorporated  with  other  feeds  and  their  bulk  may 
then  have  some  beneficial  effect.  Oat  middlings  contain 
more  fat  than  does  wheat  bran  and,  like  oat  bran,  oat  dust 
and  oat  clippings,  they  are  usually  put  into  compound  feeds. 

WHEAT  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 

Wheat  is  the  chief  American  cereal  used  for  human  con- 
sumption, and  its  consequent  high  price  precludes  the  use  of 
much  of  it  for  cattle  feeding,  though  its  by-products  are  of 
considerable  importance.  There  are  several  varieties,  such 
as  durum  and  macaroni  wheats  and  emmer,  which  do  not  need 
separate  consideration. 


144     THE    CERE.\L    GRAINS    AND    THEIR    BY-PRODUCTS 

Wheat. — Only  the  poor  or  spoiled  samples  of  wheat  are 
available  for  stock  feeding,  but  this  damaged  grain  differs 
little  in  composition  from  the  marketable  product,  though  it 
usual!)-  contains  a  slightly  larger  amount  of  moisture  and 
protein.  Though  wheat  contains  a  little  more  protein  than 
does  corn,  it  is  essentially  a  carbohydrate  feed  and  is  slightly 
lower  than  corn  in  feeding  value.  Wheat  should  always  be 
ground  before  feeding  and  should  never  be  fed  alone;  the 
presence  of  the  proteins,  gliadin  and  glutenin,  and  the  absence 
of  any  marked  amount  of  oil  or  fat,  cause  the  formation,  in  the 
alimentary  tract,  of  pasty  masses  of  the  same  consistency  as 
dough,  and  these  may  cause  digestive  disturbances. 

Wheat  Bran. — The  coarse  outer  coatings  of  the  wheat  grain, 
removed  in  the  milling  process,  are  the  bran.  The  protein 
content  of  this  feed  is  high  and  it  has  a  fair  amount  of  other 
digestible  nutrients,  though  it  has  a  relatively  high  content 
of  crude  fiber.  The  ash  content  is  also  high  and  is  rich  in 
phosphates,  though  poor  in  lime.  Bran  is  a  light,  bulky  feed, 
is  extremely  palatable  and  has  a  beneficial  laxative  and  cooling 
effect  on  the  digestive  system.  Its  laxative  action  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  phytin,  an  organic  compound  containing 
phosphorus,  magnesium  and  potassium.  Wheat  bran  has  a 
feeding  value  about  equal  to  that  of  oats.  Owing  to  its  high 
price,  bran  is  sometimes  not  a  very  economical  supplement 
for  corn  and  other  carbonaceous  feeds.  It  can  seldom  be 
profitably  fed  to  all  the  animals  in  a  herd,  but  even  when  it  is 
high-priced  it  is  usually  advisable  to  feed  it  to  cows  just  before 
and  after  freshening,  to  animals  that  are  being  forced  for 
records,  and  to  young  stock.  Its  laxative  properties  and  its 
palatability  render  it  extremely  useful,  in  the  form  of  mashes, 
for  cows  that  are  off  feed  or  otherwise  out  of  condition. 

Wheat  Middlings. — Shorts,  standc^rd  middhngs,  or  wheat 
middhngs,  are  the  fine  particles  of  the  outer  and  inner  bran 
separated  from  the  bran  and  white  middlings.     Though  they 


BARLEY   AND   ITS   BY-PRODUCTS  145 

have  a  higher  protein  content  than  wheat  bran  they  should 
seldom  be  fed  to  dairy  cows,  as  they  are  unpalatable,  and 
more  economical  sources  of  protein  can  usually  be  obtained. 
When  fed  they  should  be  used  only  in  small  quantities  and 
mixed  with  other  feeds. 

Flour-wheat  Middlings. — Flour  or  white  middlings  are  that 
part  of  the  wheat  offal  intermediate  between  shorts  and  red 
dog  flour.  This  feed  contains  less  crude  fiber  and  more  pro- 
tein than  do  the  standard  wheat  middlings.  Like  shorts,  they 
should  be  fed  but  rarely  and  then  only  in  limited  quantities. 

Red  Dog  Flour. — This  is  a  low-grade  flour  containing  the 
fine  particles  of  bran.  It  contains  less  fiber  and  ash  and  more 
nitrogen-free  extract  than  does  wheat  bran,  and  in  feeding 
value  it  is  very  similar  to  good  white  middlings. 

BARLEY  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 

In  the  past  the  use  of  barley  for  feeding  purposes  has  been 
restricted  largely  to  the  Pacitic-coast  region  in  this  country, 
but  its  use  in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  has  recently  shown  a 
fair  degree  of  expansion.  Some  of  the  by-products,  however, 
have  been  more  widely  used. 

Barley. — Though  containing  more  protein  than  does  corn, 
barley  is  strictly  a  carbohydrate  feed.  Many  feeders  are 
prejudiced  against  the  use  of  barley  for  milk-producing  cows 
on  the  ground  that  it  tends  to  cause  the  cows  to  dry  up.  This 
prejudice  is  unfounded;  cows  have  been  fed  with  barley  as 
the  sole  grain  throughout  the  lactation  period  without  any 
deleterious  effects.  In  the  past,  only  damaged  barley  has 
been  available  for  feeding  purposes  in  certain  sections,  but 
this  discolored  grain  is  quite  as  fit  for  feeding  purposes  as  the 
brighter  samples.  Where  it  can  be  purchased  economically, 
barley  will  be  found  to  be  a  good  energy-providing  feed.  It 
is  a  palatable  feed  and  has  a  nutritive  value  just  about  the 
same  as  that  of  wheat  and  about  midway  between  that  of 


146     THE    CERE.\L    GRAINS    AND    THEIR    BY-PRODUCTS 

corn  and  oats.  It  is  generally  fed  ground,  cracked  or  rolled, 
but  the  rolled  grain  is  to  be  preferred  as  the  ground  barley 
forms  pasty,  indigestible  masses  in  the  alimentary  canal. 

Barley  Bran  and  Barley  Shorts. — These  feeds  contain  less 
protein  than  do  the  corresponding  wheat  products  and  are  of 
very  Httle  importance  in  dairy-cattle  feeding. 

Malt-sprouts. — The  sprouts  separated  from  malted  barley 
are  dried  and  sold  as  malt-sprouts.  Their  content  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats  is  low,  and  they  contain  a  large  amount  of 
digestible  crude  protein,  though  about  one-third  of  it  is 
amides  and  of  httle  feeding  value.  They  are  a  light,  bulky 
feed,  but  owing  to  the  presence  of  betaine  and  choline  they 
are  unpalatable,  though  stock  may  acquire  a  liking  for  them. 
They  are  of  lower  feeding  value  than  brewers'  dried  grains. 
The  feeding  of  over  2  pounds  per  day  cannot  be  advised  and 
their  use  is  open  to  criticism.  Malt-sprouts  have  a  great 
affinity  for  water,  and  as  they  swell  greatly  when  moistened 
they  should  be  soaked  for  several  hours  before  feeding,  as  this 
will  prevent  digestive  disturbances.  Where  only  small  quanti- 
ties are  fed,  soaking  may  not  be  necessary,  but  in  this  case 
the  malt-sprouts  should  be  mbced  with  other  feeds  as  they  are 
extremely  dusty. 

Brewers'  Grains. — This  is  the  residue  of  the  malted  grain, 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  beer  and  non-alcoholic  beer 
substitutes.  The  brewers'  wet  grains,  like  distillers'  wet 
grains,  are  in  common  use  for  feeding  purposes  only  near  the 
point  of  production.  When  properly  handled  they  make  a 
profitable  feed,  the  usual  daily  allowance  being  20  to  30  pounds 
per  cow.  It  is  very  essential  that  they  be  fed  before  decom- 
position starts;  otherwise  digestive  disturbances  are  sure  to 
result,  and  the  odors  from  the  decomposing  feed  will  also  be 
imparted  to  the  milk.  They  differ  from  the  barley  grain 
chiefly  in  the  water-and-carbohydrate  content  and  they  are 
worth  about  one-fourth  as  much  as  the  dried  grains.     Brewers' 


RYE    AND    ITS    BY-PRODUCTS  147 

dried  grains  are  a  palatable  and  bulky  feed  and  at  times  have 
been  an  economical  source  of  protein.  They  have  a  rather 
higher  value  for  milk  production  than  has  wheat  bran. 

RYE  AND   ITS   BY-PRODUCTS 

Rye  does  not  differ  materially  from  barley  in  composition 
or  feeding  value.  It  is  preferably  fed  ground  and  mixed  with 
a  relatively  large  proportion  of  other  feeds,  as  it  is  unpalatable 
to  dairy  cows  and  may  impart  a  disagreeable  bitter  flavor  to 
milk  and  butter.  If  fed  alone  or  in  large  quantities,  it  may 
also  cause  digestive  disturbances,  and  its  importance  in  the 
dairy  ration  is  not  great. 

The  chief  rye  by-products  are  middlings,  bran  and  dis- 
tillers' grains.  The  rye  middhngs  and  bran  do  not  differ  much 
from  the  corresponding  wheat  by-products,  except  that  they 
are  somewhat  lower  in  fiber,  fat  and  protein  and  are  unpalat- 
able. Rye  distillers'  grains  contain  considerably  less  protein 
and  fat  than  do  those  made  from  corn,  and  consequently  are 
of  less  value  in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle. 

RICE   AND   ITS   BY-PRODUCTS 

Damaged  and  low-grade  rice,  both  rough  and  hulled,  is 
sometimes  fed  to  cattle  and  has  a  slightly  higher  feeding  value 
than  corn.  Like  corn,  it  is  used  as  a  source  of  energy.  The 
amount  available  for  feeding  purposes  is  small.  Rice  hulls, 
the  first  layer  removed  from  the  grain  in  the  preparation  of 
rice  for  human  consumption,  should  never  be  fed  to  cattle, 
for  not  only  are  they  unpalatable,  very  fibrous  and  practically 
devoid  of  digestible  nutrients,  but  they  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  siliceous  or  sandy  material  which  causes  great  irri- 
tation in  the  digestive  tract  and  may  even  result  in  death. 


148     THE    CERE.VL    GRAINS    AND    THEIR    BY-PRODUCTS 

The  rice  bran,  the  layer  just  within  the  hull,  is  removed  in 
preparing  rice.  It  is  a  fairly  nutritious  feed  if  it  has  not  been 
adulterated  with  the  hulls,  but  owing  to  the  large  amount  of 
oil  present  it  is  not  a  very  satisfactory  feed,  as  the  breaking 
down  of  the  oil  causes  it  to  develop  rancidity  rapidl}-  in 
storage.  Rancid  rice  bran  is  unpalatable  and  may  taint  the 
milk,  but  it  is  said  that  the  rancidity  can  be  prevented  by 
kiln-dr}dng  the  bran. 

Rice  polish,  removed  from  the  grain  after  the  hulls  and  bran 
have  been  separated,  is  equal  to  corn  in  feeding  value,  but  the 
demand  for  it  in  the  arts  removes  most  of  it  from  the  list  of 
feeds  available  for  dairy  cattle. 


THE    SORGHUMS 

The  sorghums  are  drought-resisting  plants,  of  importance  in 
the  arid  and  semi-arid  regions  only.  They  may  be  divided 
into  the  non-saccharine  or  grain  sorghums,  and  the  saccharine 
or  sweet  sorghums,  or  sorghos.  The  latter  are  used  mainly 
for  forage  purposes,  though  in  some  cases  the  grains  produced 
are  used  to  a  sHght  extent  as  concentrates. 

The  non-saccharine  or  grain  sorghums  include  kalir,  durra, 
milo,  feterita,  kaoHang  and  shallu.  They  are  all  very  similar 
in  composition  and  are  essentially  energy-providing  feeds, 
carrying  about  the  same  amount  of  crude  protein  and  nitrogen- 
free  extract  as  corn.  They  are  not  quite  so  palatable  as  corn. 
The  grain  is  usually  ground,  and  in  some  cases  the  entire  head 
is  ground,  the  product  then  resembling  corn-and-cob  meal  in 
composition. 

Kafir  grain  is  astringent  and  constipating  in  action,  and  so 
must  be  fed  with  laxative  feeds  and  only  in  moderate  amounts 
to  milk-producing  cows.  Milo  is  superior  to  kafir,  as  it  is 
more  palatable  and  has  a  laxative  efifect  on  the  digestive  sys- 


THE   MILLETS  149 

tern.     Feterita  and  kaoliang  are  of  less  value  than  milo  and 
kafir,  while  the  others  mentioned  are  of  no  great  importance 

THE  MILLETS 

The  grain  of  the  various  millets  is  used  but  little  in  the 
feeding  of  dairy  cattle,  and  is  20  to  25  per  cent  less  valuable 
than  corn.     When  used,  it  should  be  ground. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  LEGUMES,  THE   OIL  SEEDS   AND   THEIR 
BY-PRODUCTS 

The  concentrates  included  in  this  grouping  come  from  a 
wide  variety  of  sources  and  are  of  importance  largely  on 
account  of  the  liberal  amounts  of  protein  which  they  supply. 
The  legumes  provide  the  most  useful  and  valuable  dry  rough- 
ages for  dairy  cattle  and,  in  addition,  some  exceedingly  valu- 
able concentrates  are  obtained  from  them.  The  concentrates 
of  leguminous  origin  have  a  high  content  of  protein,  and  in 
some  cases  this  has  been  accentuated  by  the  extraction  of  the 
oil,  which  is  generally  present  in  liberal  amounts.  Of  the 
non-leguminous  oil  seeds,  only  two,  cottonseed  and  flaxseed, 
contribute  large  amounts  of  feed  useful  to  the  dairy  farmer; 
the  others,  the  coconut  and  palmnut,  are  not  yet  of  great 
importance  in  America. 


PEAS 


The  common  field,  or  Canadian  field,  peas  make  a  very  good 
concentrate  although  they  are  not  very  widel}'  used  in  the 
feeding  of  dairy  cattle.  They  contain  about  twice  as  much 
digestible  crude  protein  as  the  cereal  grains  and  are  also  rich 
in  phosphorus  and  potash.  They  are  probably  equal  to  gluten 
feed  for  milk  production  and  should  be  fed  cracked  or  ground 
In  combination  with  corn  they  may  form  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  the  grain  ration. 

150 


COWPEAS  151 


COWPEAS 


Owing  to  uneven  ripening  and  the  consequent  difficulty  in 
harvesting,  cowpeas  are  used  mainly  as  a  forage  crop.  They 
are  very  similar  to  the  field  pea  in  composition  and  when  fed 
should  be  cracked. 

BEANS 

Most  of  the  beans  grown  in  this  country  are  used  for  human 
consumption,  but  there  are  many  damaged  and  cull  beans 
which  can  be  used  successfully  for  feeding  dairy  cattle,  as  they 
are  rich  in  protein.  They  should  be  cracked  before  feeding 
or  ground  into  a  meal.  The  former  method  of  preparation  is 
the  better,  as  the  meal  is  a  heavy  feed.  In  the  south,  velvet 
beans  have  proved  to  be  valuable  for  milk  production,  but  they 
must  be  ground  before  feeding. 

SOYBEANS 

Of  all  the  leguminous  seeds  used  in  cattle  feeding,  soybeans 
are  the  richest  in  crude  protein  and  ash.  They  are  a  valuable 
crop  in  the  south,  although  in  the  past  they  have  largely  been 
used  as  a  forage  crop.  The  soybean  is  adaptable  to  the 
same  range  of  climate  as  corn,  however,  and  the  prospects  for 
its  expansion  in  the  future  are  good. 

Soybeans  should  be  cracked  before  feeding.  They  are  very 
palatable  and  are  quite  comparable  to  the  other  feeds  of  high 
protein  content  as  far  as  their  value  for  milk  and  butter-fat 
production  is  concerned,  though  too  large  an  allowance  of 
soybeans  in  the  ration  will  cause  the  production  of  a  soft 
butter. 

Large  areas  of  the  United  States,  m  which  corn  can  be 
grown,  successfully  produce  all  the  roughages  needed  for 
dairy  cattle  as  well  as  plenty  of  energy-producing  concen- 
trates.    They  are,  however,  now  dependent  on  outside  sources 


152  LEGUMES,  OIL  SEEDS  AND  THE  BY-PRODUCTS 

for  concentrates  of  high  protein  content.  But  if  the  develop- 
ment of  the  soybean  as  a  grain  crop  progresses  as  rapidly  as 
it  is  doing  at  present,  there  appears  to  be  a  good  opportunity 
for  those  sections  to  become  absolutely  independent  as  far 
as  all  dairy-cattle  feeds  are  concerned. 

The  soybean,  ha\ing  a  high  oil  content,  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  oil,  and  the  resulting  by-product  is  used  for 
feeding  purposes.  For  a  number  of  years  this  soybean  cake 
or  meal  was  imported  from  the  Orient  and  used  on  the  Pacific 
coast  with  good  results.  Now,  however,  the  extraction  of 
soybean  oil  is  a  rapidly  growing  industry  in  the  United  States, 
and  greater  amounts  of  the  soybean  meal  are  yearly  becoming 
available  for  cattle  feeding.  It  appears  to  be  of  about  the 
same  value  as  oil  meal  for  milk  production,  and  as  the  oil 
has  been  extracted  there  is  less  risk  of  it  producing  a  soft  butter 
than  there  is  where  the  unextracted  beans  are  fed. 

PEANUTS 

Unextracted  peanuts,  though  used  in  the  feeding  of  hogs 
in  the  south,  are  not  used  for  dairy  cattle.  Peanut  meal, 
which  is  the  ground  residue  left  after  the  oil  has  been  extracted, 
is  used  to  some  extent,  however.  When  this  meal  is  made 
from  hulled  peanuts  it  contains  over  40  per  cent  of  digestible 
crude  protein  and  it  seems  to  be  of  about  the  same  value  as 
oil  meal  for  milk  production.  The  meal  from  the  unhuUed 
nuts  is  called  peanut  feed  and  contains  about  23  per  cent  of 
crude  fiber  and  20  per  cent  of  digestible  crude  protein.  Peanut 
products  tend  to  produce  a  soft  butter  and  are  not  very 
palatable  to  dairy  cows,  though  they  do  become  accustomed 
to  them. 

Peanut  hulls  are  sometimes  ground  and  used  for  adulterat- 
ing feeding  stuffs  and  are  also  fraudulently  sold  as  "  peanut 
bran."  They  contain  over  50  per  cent  of  crude  fiber  and  are 
less  valuable  than  straw  for  feeding  purposes. 


COTTONSEED   AND   ITS   BY-PRODUCTS  153 


COTTONSEED   AND   ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 

At  one  time  the  seed  of  the  cotton  plant,  after  its  separation 
from  the  lint,  was  allowed  to  go  to  waste  or,  at  the  best, 
used  for  fertilizer.  Now,  however,  the  miUions  of  tons  of 
cottonseed  produced  annually  in  the  United  States  are  used 
largely  for  feeding  purposes. 

It  has  been  shown,  by  both  practical  and  experimental  work, 
that  cottonseed  is  not  always  a  safe  feed.  The  seed  itself, 
and  also  its  products,  may  under  certain  conditions  cause 
peculiar  physiological  disturbances  which  result  in  a  staggering 
gait,  sometimes  blindness  and  even  death.  These  effects  are 
most  easily  produced  in  the  case  of  young  animals  and  con- 
sequently cottonseed  products  should  never  be  fed  to  calves 
and  other  young  stock. 

The  exact  cause  of  this  deleterious  effect  of  cottonseed  prod- 
ucts has  not  yet  been  determined,  though  it  has  been  attributed 
to  many  factors.  It  is  generaly  conceded  that  these  effects  are 
poisonous  rather  than  the  result  of  a  nutritional  insufficiency 
of  the  cottonseed.  This  toxicity  has  been  ascribed  to  many 
factors  at  one  time  and  another,  but  most  of  these  factors  have 
now  been  removed  from  the  list  of  possible  deleterious  agents. 
None  of  these  need  be  mentioned,  with  the  exception  of  prussic 
acid.  It  has  been  at  times  held  by  some  that  the  presence 
of  prussic  acid  was  the  cause  of  cottonseed  poisoning.  Cot- 
tonseed products,  like  many  other  feeds,  may  at  times,  when 
in  bad  condition,  contain  enough  prussic  acid  to  cause  poison- 
ing, but  as  a  general  rule  cottonseed  shows  no  tendency  to 
contain  prussic  acid,  and  the  typical  symptoms  of  cottonseed 
poisoning  are  not  those  of  prussic-acid  poisoning. 

There  remain  at  present  two  substances  which  are  classed 
as  the  causes  of .  typical  cottonseed  poisoning.  These  are 
gossypol,  a  pigment  found  in  cottonseed,  and  a  sulphur  com- 
bination which  occurs  in  the  protein  of  cottonseed.     Gossypol 


154  LEGUMES,  OIL  SEEDS  AND  THE   HV-PRODUCTS 

is  present  to  the  extent  of  about  .6  per  cent  in  the  raw  cotton- 
seed kernels,  and,  as  it  is  soluble  in  oil,  about  three-fourths  of 
it  is  removed  when  the  oil  is  expressed  by  the  cold-press 
method.  The  hot-press  method  of  extraction  reduces  the 
amount  of  gossypol  present  in  cottonseed  products  still 
further,  as  the  heat  has  a  destructive  effect  on  it.  The 
gossj-pol  is  supposed  to  have  a  general  poisonous  elTect.  It 
is  also  stated  that  the  sulphur  of  the  protein  of  the  cottonseed 
abstracts  iron  from  the  blood,  thus  reducing  its  oxygen- 
carrying  properties  and  ultimately  resulting  in  the  character- 
istic s>Tnptoms  of  cottonseed  poisoning. 

Which,  if  either,  of  these  two  substances  is  directly  respon- 
sible for  cottonseed  poisoning,  has  never  been  definitely 
determined  and  no  very  successful  antidote  has  been  found, 
though  it  is  stated  that  the  administration  of  iron  sulphate, 
or  copperas,  in  the  drinking  water  of  stock  will  prevent,  or  at 
least  delay,  the  onset  of  typical  cottonseed  poisoning.  Those 
who  attribute  the  toxicity  to  gossypol  say  that  the  iron  of 
the  copperas  unites  with  the  gossypol,  thus  rendering  it  harm- 
less; while  those  believing  in  the  sulphur  of  the  protein  as 
the  dangerous  element  assume  that  the  trouble  is  prevented 
through  this  sulphur  combining  with  the  additional  iron  in 
the  digestive  system  and  consequently  being  unable  to  abstract 
the  iron  from  the  haemoglobin  of  the  blood.  No  matter  what 
the  cause,  it  should  be  remembered  that  cottonseed  products 
are  not  suitable  feeds  for  calves  but  that  they  are  satisfactory 
for  dairy  cows  when  fed  with  a  suitable  ration. 

Cottonseed. — Very  little  whole  cottonseed  is  now  fed  to 
dairy  cattle  as  nearly  all  of  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oil. 
In  certain  sections  of  Europe,  however,  the  whole  cottonseed 
is  sometimes  ground  and  fed.  This  gives  a  very  concentrated 
product,  high  in  both  protein  and  fat,  and  owing  to  its  high 
content  of  oil  it  is  difficult  to  store  and  handle.  It  is  not  a 
very  satisfactory  feed  as  it  tends  to  produce  digestive  troubles. 


COTTONSEED  AND   ITS  BY-PRODUCTS  155 

Cottonseed  Hulls. — The  hulls  removed  from  the  cottonseed 
before  the  oil  is  extracted  are  high  in  hber  and  exceptionally 
low  in  their  content  of  digestible  nutrients.  In  the  south 
they  are  sometimes  used  to  add  bulk  to  the  ration,  but  as  a 
rule  more  valuable  methods  of  rendering  a  ration  bulky  can 
be  obtained.  Cottonseed  hulls  are  also  sometimes  used  as  a 
filler  in  cottonseed  and  other  feeds,  but  they  should  not  be 
bought  for  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle. 

Cottonseed  Meal. — This  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
nitrogenous  feeds  available  and  is  often  an  economical  source 
of  protein.  It  is  composed  principally  of  the  kernel  with  such 
portion  of  the  hull  as  is  necessary  in  the  manufacture  of  oil, 
and  legally  must  contain  at  least  36  per  cent  of  crude  protein. 
Cottonseed  meal  is  sold  according  to  grade;  the  three  grades 
recognized  are  as  follows:  choice,  containing  at  least  41  per 
cent;  prime,  containing  at  least  38.6  per  cent;  and  good, 
containing  at  least  36  per  cent  of  crude  protein. 

Besides  being  high  in  protein,  cottonseed  meal  contains  a 
relatively  large  amount  of  fat  and  ash,  and  these  constituents 
also  add  to  its  value.  It  has  a  constipating  action  and 
therefore  should  be  fed  with  some  laxative  feeds,  such  as 
linseed-oil  meal  and  bran.  Cottonseed  meal  should  always 
be  bought  subject  to  guarantee,  as  it  varies  greatly  in  protein 
content.  It  should  be  in  good  fresh  condition,  as  moldy  meal, 
Hke  other  damaged  feeds,  is  not  only  unpalatable,  but  may 
also  be  dangerous  to  stock.  Under  certain  conditions  any 
grade  of  cottonseed  meal  may  prove  poisonous;  it  should 
never  be  fed  to  young  calves  or  to  cows  about  to  freshen,  and 
the  feeding  of  it  to  bulls  is  not  good  practice.  However, 
there  is  no  danger  in  feeding  a  limited  amount,  up  to  2  pounds 
per  day,  to  milking  cows,  provided  it  is  mixed  with  laxative, 
bulky  and  less  nitrogenous  feeds.  It  is  an  excellent  feed  for 
cows  when  on  pasture,  as  its  constipating  effect  counteracts 
the  action  of  washy  grass,  and,  unlike  oil  meal,  it  tends  to 


156  LEGUMES.  OIL  SEEDS  AND  THE  BY-PRODUCTS 

harden  the  butler,  which  is  oftentimes  soft  (hiring  summer, 
Where  silage  or  roots  are  used  it  is  an  excellent  feed  in  winter, 
but  it  should  not  be  included  in  a  ration  containing  no  suc- 
culent feed. 

Sometimes  cottonseed  meal  contains  excessive  amounts  of 
hulls,  due  either  to  incomplete  separation  before  the  meats 
are  ground  for  the  oil-extraction  process  or  to  intentional 
adulteration  with  hulls.  The  excess  of  hulls  detracts  from 
the  value  of  the  meal.  The  presence  of  large  amounts  of  hulls 
can  be  detected  by  a  very  simple  process.  A  teaspoonful 
of  the  meal  is  stirred  up  with  about  two  ounces  of  boiUng 
water  until  all  the  particles  are  wet  and  floating.  The  mix- 
ture is  allowed  to  settle  for  five  to  ten  seconds  and  the  super- 
natant liquid  is  decanted.  The  liquid  poured  off  is  mustard 
colored,  and  the  presence  of  a  dark-brown  sediment  in  large 
amounts  indicates  adulteration.  This  sediment  is  ground-up 
hulls  and  it  can  be  washed  once  or  twice  to  free  it  from  the 
meal.  This  is  only  a  comparative  test,  but  an  adulterated 
meal  will  give  a  much  larger  sediment  than  will  a  good  sample. 

Cottonseed  Feed. — This  is  a  mixture  of  the  meal  and  hulls 
of  the  cottonseed  and  contains  less  than  36  per  cent  of  protein. 
It  is  of  less  value  than  cottonseed  meal,  the  content  of  hulls 
and  protein  being  the  factors  which  indicate  its  relative  feeding 
value. 

Cold-pressed  Cottonseed  Cake. — This  is  the  product  re- 
sulting when  the  oil  is  extracted  from  the  undecorticated,  or 
unhulled,  cottonseed  by  the  cold-pressure  process  and  it 
includes  the  entire  cottonseed  less  the  oil  extracted.  This 
feed  contains  more  fiber  than  does  cottonseed  meal,  on  account 
of  a  larger  percentage  of  hulls,  and  it  is  consequently  less 
valuable  as  a  feed.  It  is  usually  sold  as  broken  cake  but 
sometimes  it  is  ground  into  a  meal.  It  is  also  put  on  the 
market  under  various  trade  names. 


FLAXSEED   AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS  157 


FLAXSEED  AND  ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 

Flaxseed  and  its  by-products  provide  some  feeds  which  are 
among  the  most  widely  used,  and  which  are  very  valuable  on 
account  of  their  high  protein  content  and  their  laxative 
properties.  The  laxative  action  is  due  to  the  presence  of  com- 
pounds which  absorb  water  very  readily  and,  becoming 
mucilaginous,  lubricate  the  intestinal  tract. 

Cases  have  been  reported  where  animals  died  from  prussic- 
acid  poisoning  when  fed  oil  meal  and  other  flaxseed  products. 
Flaxseed  products  contain  cyanoglucosides  and  an  enzyme 
which  is  capable,  under  certain  conditions,  of  splitting  off 
prussic  acid  from  these  glucosides.  As  a  rule,  however,  this 
does  not  take  place  unless  the  feed  has  become  moldy,  has 
been  heated,  or  in  other  ways  caused  to  ferment.  The  bulk  of 
this  pernicious  enz^-me  is  destroyed  by  the  heating  in  the 
manufacture  of  oil  meal  by  either  the  old  or  new  process 
and  consequently  there  is  little  danger  of  poisoning  from  this 
feed  unless  it  is  moldy  or  otherwise  spoiled.  In  the  feeding 
of  unextracted  flaxseed  or  flaxseed  meal  to  young  calves,  it  is 
probably  best  to  make  it  into  a  mash  with  boiling  water  and 
keep  it  hot  for  an  hour  or  two  before  feeding.  This  should 
drive  off  any  prussic  acid  that  might  be  formed  and  thus 
prevent  any  risk  of  poisoning. 

Flaxseed. — Flaxseed  is  too  expensive  to  use  in  the  feeding 
of  mature  cattle,  but  it  is  sometimes  used,  in  the  form  of  a 
meal,  for  the  feeding  of  young  calves.  It  has  a  high  content 
of  protein  and  oil  and  has  a  laxative  action  which  is  very 
valuable.  It  is  too  expensive  to  be  widely  used,  however. 
It  is  used  to  a  slight  extent,  in  the  ground  form,  with  cows 
that  are  being  forced  for  records. 

Linseed-oil  Meal. — This  is  the  ground  product  obtained 
after  the  extraction  of  the  oil  from  the  flaxseed.  It  is  a 
widely  used  and  valuable  feed.     There  are  two  varieties  of  it, 


158  LE(;UMES,  OIL  SEEDS  AND  THE  liV-I'RODUCTS 

the  old  process  and  the  new  process.  The  old-process  oil 
meal  is  the  ground  product  obtained  after  extraction  of  part 
of  the  oil  from  the  flaxseed  by  crushing,  cooking  and  hydraulic 
pressure,  while  the  new-process  oil  meal  is  the  ground  product 
obtained  after  extraction  of  part  of  the  oil  from  the  flaxseed 
by  crushing,  heating  and  the  use  of  solvents. 

The  oil  extraction  is  more  complete  in  the  case  of  the  new- 
process  than  in  the  case  of  the  old-process  meal,  therefore  the 
old-process  meal  contains  rather  more  oil  and  less  protein 
than  does  the  new-process  meal,  and  is  rather  more  valuable. 
Owing  to  their  similarity  there  is  danger  of  substitution,  but 
the  following  simple  test  makes  it  easy  to  distinguish  between 
them.  Put  a  little  of  the  finely  pulverized  meal  in  a  glass 
and  to  it  add  ten  times  its  volume  of  boiling  water.  Stir 
thoroughly  and  allow  to  stand  undisturbed  for  an  hour.  If 
the  meal  settles  to  the  bottom  and  leaves  the  water  clear,  it  is 
new-process;  if  the  mixture  remains  jelly-like,  it  is  old- 
process  meal. 

Old-process  linseed-oil  meal  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  dairy 
cows.  It  contains  a  large  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  and 
has  a  laxative  and  cooling  effect  upon  the  digestive  system. 
It  is  a  very  safe  feed,  and  though  its  relatively  high  price 
sometimes  causes  it  to  be  a  less  profitable  source  of  protein 
than  some  other  feeds,  it  is  often  advisable  to  use  it,  in  spite 
of  its  high  price,  for  calves,  bulls  and  animals  that  are  off  feed, 
in  low  condition  or  being  prepared  for  freshening  or  Advanced 
Registry  tests.  One  or  2  pounds  per  day  makes  an  excellent 
addition  to  a  ration.  The  old-process  meal  contains  3  per 
cent  less  crude  protein  and  4.5  per  cent  more  fat  than  does  the 
new-process  meal,  is  more  digestible  and  also  has  a  better 
effect  on  the  digestive  system.  It  should  be  fed  instead  of  the 
new-process  if  the  difference  in  price  is  not  too  great. 


COCONUT  MEAL  159 


COCONUT   MEAL 


Coconut,  or  copra,  meal  contains  about  i8  per  cent  of 
digestible  crude  protein,  and  its  fat  content  varies  consider- 
ably. It  is  a  feed  that  has  given  good  results  in  Europe  and 
also  on  the  Pacific  coast,  the  main  section  of  this  country 
in  which  it  has  been  tried.  Many  claim  that  it  will  cause  a 
temporary  increase  in  the  fat  content  of  milk.  It  is  very 
palatable  when  fresh,  but  tends  to  become  rancid  if  stored 
for  long  periods.  Even  though  it  has  a  lower  protein  content, 
it  is  perhaps  almost  as  valuable  as  oil  meal  for  dairy  cows, 

PALMNUT   MEAL 

This  feed,  like  coconut  meal,  has  not  been  used  much  in  this 
country,  but  has  been  used  successfully  in  Europe.  It  con- 
tains less  protein  and  fat,  as  a  rule,  than  does  coconut  meal. 


CHAPTER   XVTT 

MISCELLANEOUS    CONCENTRATES 

Most  of  the  feeds  used  for  dairy  cattle  are  of  vegetable 
origin;  a  few  of  these  that  cannot  be  conveniently  discussed 
elsewhere  are  included  here.  There  are  also  feeds  derived 
from  animal  sources,  some  of  which  are  very  valuable  and 
universally  used,  though  some  are  of  little  importance.  With 
these  standard  concentrates  are  also  included  the  proprietary 
feeds,  of  which  there  are  a  multitude. 

BUCKWHEAT  AND   ITS  BY-PRODUCTS 

Buckwheat  is  frequently  classed  with  the  cereals,  but  it  does 
not  belong  there  as  it  is  a  polygonaceous  plant.  Buckwheat 
itself  is  seldom  used  in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle,  and  the 
buckwheat  by-products  are  not  of  primary  importance. 
Buckwheat  middlings  make  quite  a  good  feed  as  they  are  fairly 
palatable  and  contain  over  28  per  cent  of  crude  protein. 
Usually,  however,  they  are  mixed  with  the  hulls  and  sold  as 
buckwheat  feed,  which  is  rather  unpalatable  and  though 
slightly  less  valuable  than  bran  is  used  to  some  extent.  Fre- 
quently, too  many  hulls  are  added  to  the  mixture,  and  this 
results  in  a  feed  of  high  fiber  content  and  little  value. 

MOLASSES 

Molasses  is  a  valuable  carbohydrate  feed,  but  it  is  frequently 
too  high  in  price  to  be  used  economically  in  general  herd 
feeding.     Beet  and  cane  molasses  differ  little  in  composition. 
1()0 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS  161 

Each  contains  about  65  per  cent  of  nitrogen-free  extract, 
nearly  all  of  which  is  digestible,  and  only  a  small  amount  of 
crude  protein  which,  consisting  largely  of  amides,  is  of  doubtful 
nutritive  value;  neither  contains  fat  or  fiber.  Though  both 
types  of  molasses  are  laxative  in  character,  the  beet  molasses 
is  sometimes  more  purgative  in  action  on  account  of  the  pres- 
ence of  alkaline  salts,  organic  acids  and  other  substances. 

Molasses  cannot  be  conveniently  fed  alone,  and  it  is  usually 
mixed  with,  or  poured  over,  other  feeds  and  is  frequently 
diluted  with  water  before  being  used.  Though  it  cannot 
always  be  used  economically  it  is  frequently  to  be  advised 
where  inferior  or  unpalatable  feeds  have  to  be  utilized,  as  under 
such  circumstances  it  will  cause  the  animals  to  make  good  use 
of  feeds  which  might  otherwise  be  wasted.  An  addition  to  the 
ration  of  2  to  3  pounds  of  molasses  per  head  per  day  is  fre- 
quently of  advantage  in  such  cases.  It  can  also  be  used  satis- 
factorily where  cows  are  being  forced  for  production,  and 
maximum  feed  consumption  is  desired. 

DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

Milk  and  the  by-products  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of 
Dutter  and  cheese  are  used  for  the  growing  of  calves  but  not 
generally  for  older  animals.  The  efficient  use  of  these  feeds 
means  a  large  addition  to  the  income  of  the  farmer.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  they  arc  generally  easily  obtainable,  their  true 
value  is  frequently  overlooked. 

Whole  Milk. — This  is  undoubtedly  the  best  leed  for  young 
calves,  as  it  supplies  them  with  the  nutrients  they  need  in  the 
right  proportions,  but  it  can  seldom  be  used  economically 
in  the  raising  of  calves  as  the  market  price  for  whole  milk  or 
butter  fat  is  usually  sufiiciently  high  to  bring  in  greater  returns 
than  can  be  obtained  by  the  feeding  of  the  whole  milk  to 
calves.  In  spite  of  this,  it  should  be  supplied  to  the  calves 
during  their  first  few  weeks  of  life. 


162  MISCELLANEOUS   CONCEN  rRATES 

Skim  Milk. — Calves  can  be  successfully  reared  on  skim 
milk,  provided  the  feeding  is  done  intelligently.  Skim-milk 
calves  are  not  always  in  as  good  condition  as  are  calves  fed  on 
whole  milk,  but  the  gains  in  live  weight  can  be  obtained  more 
economically  and  the  animals  will  develop  into  as  good  cows 
as  those  fed  by  the  more  expensive  method.  The  taking  of 
the  butter  fat  from  the  milk  does  not  render  it  valueless  for 
calf-feeding,  but  substitutes  should  be  provided  for  the  mate- 
rials removed,  and  this  is  generally  most  efficiently  done  by 
the  supplying  of  grain. 

Buttermilk. — Buttermilk,  when  obtained  fresh  and  un- 
diluted, is  just  slightly  lower  in  value  for  calf-feeding  than 
is  skim  milk.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  it  from 
deteriorating  before  it  is  fed. 

Whey. — Fresh  undiluted  whey  can  be  successfully  employed 
in  the  feeding  of  calves,  though  its  value  is  not  more  than  half 
that  of  skim  milk.  It  should  be  remembered  that  whey, 
unlike  skim  milk  and  buttermilk,  is  not  a  high  protein  feed, 
as  it  contains  less  than  i  per  cent  of  digestible  crude  protein 
and  more  than  5  per  cent  of  digestible  carbohydrate  equivalent, 
while  skim  milk  contains  3.5  per  cent  of  digestible  crude  pro- 
tein and  5.5  per  cent  of  digestible  carbohydrate  equivalent. 
Consequently,  the  supplementary  grain  fed  with  it  should  be 
of  relatively  high  protein  content. 

Dried  Dairy  Products. — Various  brands  of  dried  milk,  skim 
milk  and  buttermilk  are  to  be  obtained  on  the  market.  These 
are  in  powdered  or  semi-solid  form  and  can  be  successfully 
used  in  the  feeding  of  calves  when  the  prices  asked  for  them 
are  not  too  high.  As  a  general  rule  they  are  not  advisable 
where  skim  milk  is  available,  though  they  are  frequently  of 
value  in  the  market  milk  regions  where  all  of  the  product 
from  the  cows  is  marketed. 


PACKING-HOUSE  BY-PRODUCTS  163 

PACKING-HOUSE  BY-PRODUCTS 

The  packing-house  by-products  are  concentrates  of  very 
high  protein  content  and  of  considerable  importance  in  the 
feeding  of  live  stock.  Up  to  the  present  time,  however,  they 
have  not  been  used  to  any  considerable  extent  with  dairy  cattle 
and  they  will  probably  never  become  popular  for  this  purpose. 

Tankage. — Tankage  is  seldom  used  as  a  dairy  cow  feed  in 
this  country,  but  in  Europe  good  results  have  been  obtained 
when  it  was  fed  to  milk  cows  at  the  rate  of  2  to  3  pounds  per 
thousand  pounds  live  weight.  It  will  probably  never  be 
popular  as  a  dairy-cattle  feed  in  this  country,  owing  to  the 
high  price  it  commands  for  hog-feeding  purposes,  and  the 
large  supply  of  more  popular  protein  feeds.  Its  palatability 
to  dairy  cows  is  also  much  in  doubt. 

Blood  Meal. — It  has  been  found  that,  pound  for  pound, 
blood  meal  is  twice  as  valuable  as  cottonseed  meal  for  milk- 
producing  purposes.  It  is  not  commonly  fed  to  dairy  cows 
and  will  probably  never  be  popular.  When  it  is  used,  it  should 
never  be  given  in  amounts  greater  than  i  to  2  pounds  per 
head  per  day.  At  the  present  time  many  are  advocating  its 
use  for  calf-feeding,  and  it  seems  to  be  giving  good  results 
when  used  as  a  constituent  of  milk  substitutes,  as  it  has  a 
tendency  to  prevent  scours. 

FISHERY  BY-PRODUCTS 

The  fishery  by-products  are  not  of  much  importance  as 
dairy-cattle  feeds,  but  there  is  a  possibility  that  they  may  be 
of  greater  importance  in  certain  sections  in  the  future.  They 
are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Europe  at  the  present 
time.  They  are  rather  unpalatable  to  dairy  cows  and  if  not 
fed  carefully  may  impart  a  disagreeable  odor  to  the  milk. 

Fish  Meal. — This  generally  contains  less  protein  and  fat 
than  does  good  tankage.     It  is  fed  to  cows  to  some  extent  in 


164  MISCELLANEOUS  CONCENTRATES 

Europe  and  it  is  reported  that  when  it  is  fed  at  the  rate  of 
about  2  pounds  per  head  daily  it  produces  no  bad  efYects  on  the 
milk  and  is  of  about  the  same  value  as  cottonseed  meal, 
though  the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture  reports  that 
it  is  about  20  per  cent  more  valuable  than  cottonseed  meal. 

Whale  Meal. — This  is  used  for  dairy  cattle-feeding  in 
Europe  to  some  extent,  but  is  of  no  great  importance  in  this 
country,  its  value  and  future  prospects  being  perhaps  about 
the  same  as  those  of  fish  meal. 

PROPRIETARY  FEEDS 

In  some  cases  the  man  in  charge  of  live  stock  believes  that 
he  does  not  possess  the  knowledge  necessary  to  choose  his 
concentrated  feeds  to  the  best  advantage,  while  in  other 
cases  the  farmer  prefers  to  buy  ready-mixed  feeds  and  thus 
be  saved  the  trouble  of  compounding  the  grain  ration  for  his 
cows.  As  a  consequence  there  are  now  a  large  number  of 
proprietary  mixed  feeds  on  the  market.  Proprietary  feeds 
cannot  be  favored  or  condemned  as  a  class,  but  need  individual 
consideration. 

Standard  Feeds. — These  usually  consist  of  well-known  con- 
centrates sold  under  trade  names.  Generally  only  one  con- 
stituent is  present,  some  of  the  feeds  that  have  been  sold  in 
this  way  to  a  considerable  extent  are  brewers'  dried  grains, 
distillers'  dried  grains,  gluten  feed  and  cold-pressed  cottonseed 
cake.  They  are  usually  valuable  feeds  and  when  sold  at 
reasonable  prices  can  be  recommended  for  the  feeding  of 
dairy  cattle. 

Mixed  Concentrates. — A  large  number  of  manufacturers 
put  on  the  market  feeds  that  are  mixtures  of  good  concen- 
trates; practically  any  of  the  common  feeds  can  be  found  in 
such  combinations.  They  are  usually  good  feeds  and  can  be 
bought  with  safety  when  the  price  paid  for  them  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  they  contain. 


PROPRIETARY   FEEDS  165 

Occasionally  valuable  concentrates  are  used  to  mask  the  pres- 
ence of  worthless  waste  materials  which  could  not  otherwise 
be  disposed  of. 

Alfalfa-molasses  Feeds. — There  are  on  the  market  many 
feeds  the  basis  of  which  is  ground  alfalfa  hay  or  alfalfa  meal. 
They  usually  contain  some  molasses.  Practically  any  of  the 
common  concentrated  feeds,  as  well  as  a  large  number  of  use- 
less materials  and  adulterants,  can  be  found  in  combination 
with  the  basal  materials. 

Many  of  these  feeds,  put  out  by  reliable  firms,  are  made 
from  good  alfalfa  hay  and  concentrates  of  high  quality.  Such 
feeds  are  legitimate,  and  their  sale  cannot  be  criticized  as  long 
as  they  are  priced  in  accordance  with  the  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  they  contain — a  reasonable  allowance  being  neces- 
sarily made  for  the  preparation  of  the  feed.  On  the  other 
hand,  quite  a  number  of  alfalfa-molasses  preparations  are 
made  from  very  poor  quality  alfalfa  hay,  or  even  alfalfa  straw, 
flavored  with  molasses  and  containing  rather  negligible 
amounts  of  concentrates.  Damaged  grains,  mill  refuse  and 
other  materials  of  doubtful  feeding  value  are  also  used  in 
their  elaboration.  Feeds  of  this  nature  have  no  place  on  the 
dairy  farm. 

Peat-molasses  Feeds. — The  handling  of  molasses  is  dif- 
ficult, and  some  feeders  prefer  to  have  their  work  simphfied 
through  the  absorption  of  the  feed  by  peat.  Peat-molasses 
feeds  are  perhaps  convenient  to  handle,  and  the  trade  in  such 
materials  is  no  doubt  legitimate  when  they  are  sold  for  what 
they  are — molasses  absorbed  by  peat.  However,  some  firms 
make  extravagant  statements  regarding  such  mixtures  and 
even  attribute  a  direct  feeding  value  to  the  peat.  Such 
statements  are  unwarranted. 

The  peat  used  in  the  preparation  of  mixed  feeds  may  con- 
tain as  high  as  25  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  the  buying  of 
water   in  mixed   feeds   is   always   expensive.     The   claim   is 


166  MISCELLANEOUS  CONCENTRATES 

frequentxy  made  that  the  peat  will  neutralize  any  free  acids 
present  in  the  molasses;  but  peat  is  in  itself  acid  in  reaction 
and  so  cannot  neutralize  any  acid  that  might  be  present  in 
the  molasses.  Moreover,  neither  cane  nor  beet  molasses  is 
acid  in  reaction,  as  a  general  rule. 

Where  the  ash  content  of  peat  has  not  been  aflfected  by 
wind-  or  water-borne  materials,  during  its  formation,  it  will  be 
low  and  of  little  consequence  as  far  as  the  animal  economy  is 
concerned.  On  the  other  hand,  many  peats  have  a  high 
ash  content  due  to  the  deposition  of  sand  at  the  time  of  their 
formation.  Some  peats  are  known  to  contain  over  lo  per 
cent  of  sand;  if  these  were  fed  to  animals  they  would  be 
harmful  rather  than  beneficial,  as  the  large  amount  of  sand 
would  produce  intestinal  irritation  leading  to  scours,  and 
might  even  result  in  the  death  of  the  animals. 

The  fats  or  oils  in  peat  are  practically  negligible  in  quantity 
and  are  very  probably  not  available  to  animals.  At  times  the 
dry  matter  of  peat  may  contain  about  i  per  cent  of  fatty  ma- 
terial, a  small  portion  of  which  might  be  digestible. 

The  materials  from  which  peat  is  derived  contain  proteins; 
but  these  are  to  a  great  extent  broken  down  during  the 
process  of  peat  formation  and  give  rise  to  simpler  non-protein 
nitrogenous  compounds.  It  has  been  shown  that,  as  a  rule, 
the  dry  matter  of  peat  contains  less  than  2.6  per  cent  of  nitro- 
gen and  that  6.6  per  cent  of  this  nitrogen  might  be  digested 
by  animals.  If  this  nitrogen  that  might  be  digested  were 
protein  nitrogen,  the  highest  amount  of  digestible  crude 
protein  that  could  occur  in  peat  would  be  .8  per  cent,  but  as 
this  nitrogen  is  undoubtedly  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  non- 
protein nitrogen,  it  is  evident  that  peat  cannot  be  looked  on 
as  a  protein  concentrate. 

Of  the  carbohydrates  in  peat,  practically  none  of  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  is  available.  A  small  amount  of  the 
pentosans  may  be  available,  but  they  are  of  doubtful  value. 


PROPRIETARY  FEEDS  167 

The  fiber  has  still  to  be  accounted  for.  The  dry  matter  of 
peat  may  contain  as  high  as  25  per  cent  of  crude  fiber  and 
some  of  this  is  at  times  digestible.  The  digestion  of  this 
fiber,  however,  is  a  net  loss,  rather  than  a  gain,  to  the  animal 
as  more  energy  is  required  to  digest  and  assimilate  fiber  than 
the  fiber  itself  provides. 

The  excessive  amount  of  fiber  present,  in  comparison  with 
the  other  constituents,  nulhfies  any  nutritive  effect  these  might 
have,  as  the  digestion  of  the  fiber  uses  up  more  energy  than 
could  be  provided  by  the  small  amount  of  other  nutrients 
that  might  be  present.  The  fact  that  some  digestible  nutri- 
ents may  be  present  is  no  real  indication  that  peat  has  a 
positive  nutritive  value,  because  the  eftorts  expended  by  the 
animal  in  obtaining  these  nutrients  cause  the  use  of  more 
energy  than  the  nutrients  furnish. 

It  has  also  been  shown  that  peat  not  only  possesses  no 
nutritive  value  in  itself,  but  also  depresses  the  digestibihty 
of  the  substances  with  which  it  is  fed.  This  is  due  to  its 
high  fiber  content.  Consequently,  it  may  be  said  that,  though 
peat  is  a  convenient  agent  for  the  absorption  of  molasses, 
it  possesses  no  inherent  nutritive  value  of  its  own  and  may 
even  depress  the  digestibility  of  the  other  constituents  of  the 
ration. 

Fillers. — Many  mked  feeds  of  little  or  no  value  are  on  the 
market.  They  are  usually  composed  of  waste  materials  which 
cannot  be  disposed  of  in  any  other  way,  sometimes  with  the 
addition  of  constituents  which  will  increase  their  apparent 
content  of  protein  and  substances  which  will  impart  to  them 
a  pleasing  aroma  and  an  appetizing  flavor. 

Some  of  the  substances  frequently  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  such  preparations  are  mill  sweepings,  ground  corncobs,  cot- 
tonseed hulls,  oat  hulls,  flax-straw  refuse  and  ground  peat. 
The  majority  of  these  materials  are  absolutey  devoid  of 
feeding  value,  and  in  some  cases  they  may  contain  so  much 


168  MISCELLANEOUS   CONCENTRATES 

grit  and  sandy  material  as  to  be  dangerous  when  fed  to  live 
stock.  Feeds  of  this  tj-pe  should  not  purchased  at  any 
price. 

Tonic  Feeds. — The  so-called  conditioners,  tonics,  or  stock 
feeds  are  not  needed,  though  the  majority  of  them  are  harm- 
less. They  frequently  consist  of  inert  materials  to  which 
have  been  added  such  common  and  cheap  ingredients  as 
common  salt,  sulphur,  charcoal,  alum,  copperas,  Epsom  salts 
and  Glauber's  salts,  occasionally  with  aromatic  substances" 
such  as  fennel  and  anise  seed. 

When  the  low  cost  of  the  ingredients  is  considered,  the 
prices  asked  for  the  majority  of  stock  tonics  are  exorbitant. 
If  they  fulfilled  the  claims  made  regarding  their  curative  prop- 
erties such  prices  might  be  justified.  However,  they  do  not 
fulfill  such  claims.  An  idea  of  their  low  initial  cost  and  impo- 
tence as  cure-alls  can  be  obtained  from  a  knowledge  of  the 
fact  that  some  of  them  contain  as  much  as  85  per  cent  of 
common  salt. 

Some  of  the  feeds  called  tonics  do  have  medicinal  proper- 
ties, but  it  is  a  slur  on  the  common  sense  of  the  stock-owner 
to  ask  him  to  believe  that  one  highly  odoriferous  powder  will 
cure  all  animal  ills.  Such  a  claim  is  especially  preposterous 
in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  specific  ills  require  specific  treat- 
ment, and  even  animals  have  their  own  individual  require- 
ments in  health  as  well  as  in  sickness. 

Stock  tonics  should  not  be  purchased  at  any  price,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  an  animal  in  good  condition  needs  no  tonic, 
and  an  individual  that  is  off  feed  or  otherwise  out  of  order  can 
be  treated  by  cheaper  and  more  effective  methods. 

All  proprietary  feeds  should  be  bought  on  the  basis  of  their 
digestible  nutrient  content  and  not  on  the  claims  made  for 
them.  Where  possible,  a  statement  of  the  constituents  from 
which  the  mixture  is  made  should  be  obtained,  as  this  is  very 
frequently  a  good  indication  of  the  probable  value  of  the  feed. 


PART  V 
FEEDING   PRACTICE 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
GENERAL  FEEDING   CONSIDERATIONS 

In  feeding  the  dairy  herd  the  greatest  attention  is  necessary 
in  the  care  of  the  milking  cow  and  the  young  calf.  Much  care 
is  demanded  by  members  of  these  groups  which  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  the  case  of  other  animals.  The  main 
problem  is  the  same  throughout — that  of  getting  maximum 
results  at  the  lowest  cost  possible.  Consequently,  many  of 
the  problems  mentioned  here  will  apply  to  other  classes  of 
dairy  stock  in  addition  to  the  milk  cow. 

Each  cow  has  her  own  individual  requirements  for  mainte- 
nance and  production;  moreover,  attention  must  be  paid  to 
the  likes  and  dislikes  of  the  animals  if  the  maximum  or  most 
profitable  production  is  to  be  obtained.  The  cow  should 
receive  an  abundance  of  feed  containing  plenty  of  nutrients 
in  the  correct  proportions  and  made  up  of  feeding  stuffs  that 
she  Ukes.  The  consideration  of  economy  is  essential,  in  view 
of  the  relatively  high  prices  generally  demanded  for  certain 
types  of  feeding  stuffs.  In  the  major  portion  of  the  dairy 
regions,  and  especially  in  the  corn  belt,  the  chief  feeds  that 
have  to  be  purchased  are  high  protein  concentrates,  and  in 
buying  these  the  relative  cost  of  the  digestible  protein  in  the 
various  feeds  should  be  determined  and  considered.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  concentrate  providing  digestible  crude 
protein  at  the  lowest  cost  per  pound  should  be  purchased. 

The  feed  of  a  cow  must  be  regulated  by  her  production,  live 
weight  and  condition.  Enough  feed  should  be  provided  to 
keep  the  cow  producing  to  the  best  of  her  ability  and  in  fair 
171 


172  GEXER/VL   FEEDING   CONSIDERATIONS 

condition.  She  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  poor  or  too 
fat.  When  poor  in  condition  the  cow  is  evidently  not  getting 
enough  feed  for  both  maintenance  and  production  and  is 
drawing  on  her  body  for  nutrients  to  keep  up  her  milk  yield. 
This  cannot  go  on  indefinitely,  however,  and  when  the  body 
stores  of  nutrients  have  been  depleted  to  a  certain  le\'el  milk 
production  must  be  curtailed.  Excessively  high  condition, 
except  at  the  beginning  of  the  lactation  period,  also  causes  a 
decrease  in  milk  production. 

The  production  of  a  cow  should  be  determined  by  means  of 
the  milk  scales  and  the  Babcock  tester,  and  with  their  "  ad- 
vice "  the  feeding  operations  can  be  conducted  intelligently. 
As  a  rule  the  grain  ration  will  be  determined  by  the  produc- 
tion, and  the  roughage  ration  by  the  live  weight  of  the  cow. 
One  pound  of  grain  can  generally  be  fed  for  each  3  to  4 
pounds  of  milk  produced,  depending  on  the  richness  of  the 
milk  and  the  total  amount  produced.  Another  simple 
method  of  determining  the  grain  requirements  is  to  allow  7 
pounds  of  grain  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat  produced.  High- 
producing  cows  require  more  grain  than  do  low  producers. 
As  a  rule  the  amount  of  roughage  required  per  thousand 
pounds  live  weight  will  be  about  equal  to  25  to  35  pounds 
of  silage  and  10  to  15  pounds  of  legume  hay  per  day. 

The  live  weight  of  a  cow  is  a  good  index  as  to  whether  she 
is  being  properly  fed  or  not,  but  good  judgment  or,  better  yet, 
accurate  scales  must  be  used  in  determining  the  live  weight. 
The  weight  of  a  cow  varies  considerably  from  day  to  day 
and  at  different  times  during  the  day,  largely  because  of  dif- 
ferences in  intestinal  fill  and  in  the  length  of  time  before  or 
after  feeding  and  watering. 

The  weight  of  a  cow  should  not  be  expected  to  remain 
constant  throughout  the  lactation  period,  as  under  average 
conditions  she  will  decrease  in  weight  for  the  first  six  to 
twelve  weeks  after  calving.     This  post-parturient  live-weight 


GeneryVL  feeding  considerations  173 

decrease  depends  largely  on  the  condition  of  the  cow  at  the  time 
of  freshening  and  on  her  inherent  abihty  to  take  the  stores 
of  fat  from  her  body  and  use  them  for  milk  production. 
The  greater  this  ability  is,  the  greater  will  be  her  decrease  in 
weight  after  freshening;  in  some  cases  it  amounts  to  200 
and  occasionally  even  to  500  pounds. 

After  this  initial  loss,  the  cow  will  remain  practically 
constant  in  live  weight  for  some  time,  depending  largely  on 
the  time  of  her  next  freshening.  For  a  period  of  from  two 
to  five  months  previous  to  calving  the  cow  may  be  expected 
to  increase  in  weight.  Only  a  small  portion  of  this  increase, 
however,  is  due  to  the  growth  of  the  fetus,  the  remainder  being 
due  mainly  to  the  storage  of  body  fat  which  will  later  be 
used  for  milk  production. 

Heifers  during  their  first  and  second  lactation  periods 
require  heavier  feeding  proportionately  than  do  mature  cows. 
The  very  obvious  reason  for  this  is  the  growth  of  the  animals. 
The  Guernsey  cow,  Imp.  Parson's  Snowdrop  IV,  at  Iowa  State 
College,  averaged  872  pounds  in  live  weight  in  her  first  lacta- 
tion period,  and  during  her  fourth  period  of  production  she 
weighed,  on  the  average,  1053  pounds.  This  shows  an 
increase  of  21  per  cent  in  live  weight;  nutrients  must  be 
supplied  in  the  ration  to  take  care  of  this  growth  and  to  build 
up  new  body  tissues.  After  the  fourth  lactation  the  weight 
of  this  cow  remained  fairly  constant  from  year  to  year, 
though  in  the  case  of  some  cows  full  growth  may  not  be 
reached  until  a  somewhat  later  age. 

A  cow  with  a  beefy  tendency  generally  requires  a  ration  of 
a  narrower  nutritive  ratio  than  does  one  possessing  the 
nervous  temperament  so  much  sought.  Two  Holstein  cows 
at  Iowa  State  College,  Snowflake  Josephine  DeKol  II  and 
Lucy  Duchess  DeKol,  were  of  practically  the  same  age  and 
had  always  received  the  same  general  treatment,  but  Snow- 
flake  Josephine  DeKol  II  had  a  decided  tendency  to  put  on 


174 


GENKK.M.   FEEDING   CONSIDER.VnONS 


body  fat  while  Lucy  Duchess  DeKol  showed  much  greater 
refinement  and  was  difficult  to  get  into  high  condition.  On 
one  occasion  when  they  freshened  at  about  the  same  time, 
Snowfiake  Josephine  DeKoI  II  received  a  ration  with  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  4.2  for  a  part  of  her  lactation  period 
while  for  a  similar  period  the  ration  of  Lucy  Duchess  DeKol 
had  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  5.0.  Even  with  such  rations, 
Snowfiake  Josephine  DeKol  II  remained  in  much  higher  con- 
dition than  did  the  other  cow.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  cow  with  her  milk-producing  ability  well  developed 
tends  to  use  her  feed  for  milk  production  while  the  animal 
with  this  power  less  highly  pronounced  tends  to  use  the  feed 
for  the  production  of  body  fat;  consequently  the  beefy  animal 
must  have  this  tendency  counteracted,  as  far  as  possible,  by 
the  feeding  of  extra  protein  to  stimulate  milk  production, 
while  the  other  animal  must  be  fed  an  additional  amount  of 
carbohydrates  and  fats  in  order  that  her  store  of  body 
nutrients  may  not  be  depleted  to  a  considerable  degree. 

T.\BLE  XTII 

Increase  in  Lae  Weight  Due  to  M.aturity  of  Guernsey  Cow, 
Imp.  Parson's  Snowdrop  IV 


Lactation 

Age  at  Freshening 

.\\-erage  Live  Weight 
Pounds 

I 
2 
3 
4 

2  yr.  5  mo. 

3  yr.  6  mo. 

4  yr.  Q  mo. 

5  yr.  9  mo. 

872 
966 
1018 
1053 

Though  liberal  feeding  is  essential,  overfeeding  must  be 
strictly  guarded  against,  as  it  will  cause  a  considerable  amount 
of  damage.  A  very  good  example  of  this  is  obtained  from 
part  of  the  feed  and  production  record  of  the  Iowa  State 
College  Guernsey  cow,  Imp.  Rouge  II  of  the  Brickfield. 


GENER.KL   FEEDING    CONSIDER.\TIONS 


175 


Milk 
Pro- 
duced. 
Pounds. 

U-,   .0    o    c.    f)     o    O    tr:    N   vo    fo 

%^s^.r;^  :?  ^  ^  ?:  %i^% 

a 
a 

< 

Total 
Rough- 
age. 
Pounds. 

Total 
Concen- 
trates. 
Pounds. 

1^     1^     t^     t-   0     0     0      M      ■-      "      t- 

Alfalfa 
Hay. 

Pounds. 

0     0     0     Occooooooaooooo 

Corn 

Silage. 

Pounds. 

OOOOOOO'O'OLOio 

Dried 

Beet. 

Pulp. 

Pounds. 

—  — 

Ground 
Oats. 

Pounds. 

^  -t  -1-  ^  f)   "   <-)   <^   <N   ^l   ro 

Oil 
Meal. 

Pounds. 

-^rorOfOM      <N      (N      cOfOfOfO 

Gluten 
Feed. 

Pounds. 

ro  ro  -^  rc    :    :    :  <-i  <N  (N  IN 

Wheat 
Bran. 

Pounds. 

<r!ir)fOfOtN(N(NMMl-l<-l 

Cracked 
Corn. 

Pounds. 

1 

'Cvo     t^co     00     "     ^<     ^^JOO 

176  GENERAL   EEEDTXG   COXSIDERATIOXS 

This  COW  was  gl\ing  about  her  normal  production  on 
April  1 6th  and  was  being  fed  17  pounds  of  concentrates  or 
I  pound  of  grain  for  each  2  pounds  of  milk  produced,  which 
was  about  3  pounds  more  of  grain  than  she  required.  As  a 
consequence  she  went  off  feed  and  decreased  rapidly  in 
production.  Her  grain  ration  was  markedly  reduced  on 
April  20th,  though  it  should  have  been  reduced  about  two 
days  earher ;  her  grain  then  consisted  only  of  bran,  oil  meal  and 
ground  oats,  which  are  valuable  concentrates  under  such 
circumstances.  Her  milk  production  had  now  reached  the 
low  level  of  15.2  pounds  per  day,  but  after  the  grain  ration 
was  so  markedly  cut  her  appetite  recovered  and  her  produc- 
tion immediately  increased.  Her  ration  was  increased  to 
keep  pace  with  her  production  and  by  April  26th  she  had 
come  back  to  about  her  normal  production  and  was  receiving 
14  pounds  of  grain  or  about  i  pound  of  grain  for  each  2^ 
pounds  of  milk  produced.  This  was  ample  and  allowed 
her  to  produce  to  the  height  of  her  abiUty  without  being 
pushed  heavily. 

This  shows  that  too  heavy  feeding  will  throw  a  cow  off  feed 
very  rapidly  and  that  this  will  bring  about  a  decrease  in  milk 
production.  When  a  case  of  overfeeding  is  discovered  the 
grain  ration  should  be  immediately  cut  down,  only  such  feeds 
as  bran,  oil  meal  and  ground  oats  being  provided.  After  a 
few  days  the  grain  may  be  increased  gradually  as  the  cow 
regains  her  appetite.  It  is  very  frequently  ad\isable  to 
eliminate  the  grain  ration  CHtirely  and  replace  it  with  a  bran 
mash. 

The  aim  in  feeding  milk-producing  cows  is  to  have  them 
consume  the  maximum  amount  of  feed,  in  excess  of  that 
required  for  the  purpose  of  maintenance,  and  use  it  for  the 
production  of  milk;  but  at  no  tune  should  the  animals  be 
overfed.  All  feed  should  be  cleaned  up  in  a  comparatively 
short  time — this  is  especially  true  of  silage  and  concentrates 


GENERAL   FEEDING    CONSIDERATIONS  177 

— and  feed  that  has  been  refused  should  be  removed  as  soon 
as  possible.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  the  manger  can  be 
kept  clean  and  the  cows  prevented  from  going  off  feed. 

In  feeding  dairy  cows  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
individual  cow  is  the  unit  of  profitable  production,  and  for 
the  very  best  results  the  cows  should  be  fed  individually. 
The  requirements  of  different  cows  vary,  and  those  of  any  one 
individual  also  change  considerably  from  time  to  time.  No 
matter  what  system  of  herd  feeding  is  practiced,  the  results 
obtained  will  not  be  the  best  possible  unless  great  attention 
is  given  to  the  individual  requirements  of  the  different  animals 
in  the  herd.  This  is  especially  important  in  the  case  of  the 
producing  cows,  but  it  also  holds  true,  though  to  a  smaller 
extent,  in  the  case  of  the  dry  cows  and  the  growing  heifers 
which  will  later  take  their  place  in  the  milking  herd. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
SUMMER   MILK  PRODUCTION 

Summer  conditions  are  frequently  looked  on  as  the  most 
favorable  for  economical  milk  production,  and  in  a  general 
way  this  is  true,  especially  in  high  latitudes,  though  in  other 
sections  the  heat  may  be  great  enough  to  counteract  the 
beneficial  influences.  In  the  greater  portion  of  the  United 
States,  maximum  milk  production  is  usually  obtained  during 
the  early  part  of  summer,  the  flow  reaching  its  greatest  magni- 
tude shortly  after  the  cows  are  turned  on  pasture.  This  sug- 
gests that  at  this  season  the  conditions  are  most  favorable 
for  milk  production  and  that  similar  conditions  should  be 
maintained,  as  far  as  possible,  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year.  The  influences  which  render  early  summer  conditions 
almost  ideal  for  milk  production  are  an  abundance  of  succu- 
lent, palatable  pasture  which  provides  nutrients  in  plenty, 
and  the  equable  climatic  conditions  of  that  period. 

Turning  cows  to  pasture  not  only  cuts  down  the  expendi- 
tures of  feed  and  labor  to  considerably  below  what  they  are 
in  the  winter  time,  but  it  stimulates  the  production  of  the 
cows,  not  only  for  the  short  time  immediately  after  they  go 
on  pasture,  but  also  for  the  remainder  of  the  lactation  period. 

In  changing  the  cows  from  winter  feed  to  pasture  it  is  best 
to  proceed  slowly,  especially  in  the  case  of  heavy-milking  cows, 
as  the  young,  immature  grass  of  early  spring  contains  a  very 
small  amount  of  dry  matter,  and  it  is  difficult  for  a  heavy- 
milking  cow  to  consume  enough  of  such  feed  to  supply  the 


SUMMER   JNIILK   PRODUCTION  179 

nutrients  necessary  for  maintenance  and  production,  while 
amides  and  other  compounds  present  in  young  grass  may 
tend  to  cause  scouring.  If  the  cows  are  put  on  the  pasture 
too  suddenly  the  flavor  of  the  milk  is  also  adversely  affected. 

When  the  milking  herd  is  turned  out  to  pasture  the  winter 
roughage  must  be  cut  down  rather  rapidly  and  the  grain 
ration  more  slowly.  The  feeding  of  a  little  hay  for  a  short 
time  after  the  cows  are  put  on  pasture  helps  to  counteract  the 
laxative  action  of  the  young  grass.  As  soon  as  the  cows  have 
become  accustomed  to  pasture,  all  other  feeds  can  be  elimi- 
nated except  in  the  case  of  heavy  producers,  and  even  they 
should  not  receive  more  grain  than  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  maintenance  of  their  production  at  its  normal  level. 

The  elimination  of  grain  from  the  ration  for  the  first  four  to 
six  weeks  after  the  cows  are  turned  on  pasture  has  everything 
to  recommend  it.  The  absence  of  concentrates  from  the  ration 
at  this  time  allows  the  digestive  system  of  the  cow  to  rest,  and 
she  is  in  better  condition  to  handle  grain  when  the  feeding 
of  it  again  becomes  necessary. 

Though  the  cows  of  average  producing  ability  will  be 
amply  supplied  with  feed  from  the  pasture  alone  during  the 
early  part  of  the  grazing  season,  the  pastures  in  many  sections 
do  not  furnish  enough  feed  for  the  cattle  during  the  hot,  dry 
weather  of  late  summer  and  fall.  The  problem  of  supplying 
additional  feed  may  be  met  by  better  care  of  the  pastures, 
by  the  provision  of  more  pasture,  by  using  larger  quantities 
of  concentrates  or  by  providing  succulence  in  the  form  of 
silage  or  soiling  crops. 

It  is  generally  advisable  to  have  some  pasture  for  the  cows, 
but  under  some  conditions  good  results  can  be  obtained  with- 
out it.  The  pasture  should  be  kept  producing  to  its  greatest 
capacity,  but  even  under  the  most  favorable  pasture  condi- 
tions it  will  usually  be  found  advantageous  to  provide  addi- 
tional feed. 


180  SUMMER    MILK    PRODUCTION 

During  late  summer,  pasture  alone  will  not  provide  the 
necessary  nutrients  demanded  by  high  producing  cows,  which 
require  some  grain  in  order  that  they  may  continue  producing 
to  the  best  of  their  ability.  Medium  or  mediocre  producers 
will  not  yield  much  more  milk  when  fed  grain  on  pasture, 
and  the  additional  yield  will  not,  as  a  rule,  pay  for  the  grain. 
It  has  been  shown  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  that 
cows  which  are  fed  grain  during  the  summer  will  produce 
better  during  the  succeeding  winter  than  those  which  receive 
no  concentrates;  consequently,  when  cows  are  above  the 
average  in  production  the  best  policy  will  usually  be  to  feed 
grain,  at  least  during  the  latter  part  of  the  pasture  season. 

Feeds  suitable  for  summer  feeding  are  cracked  corn,  ground 
oats,  and  cottonseed  meal.  They  keep  the  cow  up  in  pro- 
duction during  the  hot  weather  and  aid  in  building  up  her 
body  to  withstand  the  strain  of  continued  milk  production 
during  the  succeeding  winter.  Cottonseed  meal,  being  con- 
stipating in  action,  also  counteracts  the  laxative  action  of 
washy  grass.  Where  cows  on  pasture  are  receiving  only  a 
small  amount  of  grain,  corn  is  as  good  as  any  other  concen- 
trate, as  with  the  pasture  grass  it  provides  a  fairly  well- 
balanced  ration — provided,  of  course,  that  it  is  as  cheap  as 
other  grains;  but  when  cows  are  getting  large  amounts  of 
grain,  5  pounds  per  day  or  more,  other  feeds,  nitrogenous  in 
character,  should  be  used,  and  under  such  conditions  cotton- 
seed meal  is  to  be  recommended. 

Granting  that  the  pastures  are  well  tended,  antl  the  grain 
feeding  judiciously  handled,  the  fact  remains  that  these  two 
factors  are  not  sufficient  to  maintain  maximum  economical 
milk  production  during  the  hot,  dry  months  of  summer. 
During  this  period  three  factors  contribute  toward  lessened 
milk  production,  a  lack  of  succulent  feed,  warm  weather  and 
flies — and  of  the  three  the  first  is  the  most  important.  The 
majority  of  dairymen  are  agreed  that  the  loss  occurring  at 


SUMMER   MILK   PRODUCTION  181 

this  time  from  lack  of  suitable  feed  exceeds  that  occasioned 
by  improper  winter  feeding.  In  smnmer,  when  the  cows  are 
on  pasture  and  held  work  is  pressing,  many  men  neglect  their 
cows,  while  in  winter  the  owner  expects  to  feed  his  stock  and 
is  prepared  for  it. 

Under  average  dairy  conditions  the  cows  freshen  in  the 
spring,  and  give  a  good  yield  of  milk  while  the  pastures  last ; 
but  when  hot  weather  and  dry  grass  come  the  flow  decreases 
one-half  to  two-thirds,  and  the  cows  are  almost  dry  at  the 
beginning  of  winter.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  restore  the 
flow  of  milk  to  the  original  level  after  it  has  once  been  allowed 
to  run  down  from  lack  of  suitable  feed.  To  make  large  returns 
from  the  cow,  the  yearly  production  must  be  maintained  at  a 
high  level,  and  to  secure  this  it  is  essential  to  prevent  the 
summer  drop. 

Where  the  cows  freshen  in  the  fall  the  greatest  milk  yields 
can  be  obtained,  as  a  good  flow  will  be  maintained  during  the 
winter  and  the  advent  of  pasture  in  the  spring  wifl  prevent 
a  large  drop  in  production  and  keep  the  yields  fairly  uniform. 
Then  when  dry  weather  comes  some  provision  must  be  made 
to  supplement  the  dry  pastures  and  prevent  a  too  rapid 
decline  in  milk  flow.  Heavy  grain  feeding  v/ill  accomplish 
this  fairly  well,  but  it  is  unnecessarily  expensive,  and  provision 
should  therefore  be  made  to  have  green  crops  on  hand  that 
can  be  cut  and  fed  as  needed  or  to  have  silage  available. 


CHAPTl'.R   XX 

SILAGE   VERSUS   SOILAGE 

Providing  succulence  to  supplement  the  dry  pastures  of 
summer  has  been  found  to  be  an  essential  of  economical  milk 
production  in  a  very  large  number  of  dairy  sections,  and  the 
decision  as  to  which  method  shall  be  followed — whether  it 
shall  be  silage  or  soilage — to  maintain  the  summer  milk  flow 
is  an  important  one.  The  choice  between  them  will  depend 
largely  on  individual  conditions,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  main 
factors  concerning  each  system  of  feeding  is  needed  before  an 
intelligent  selection  can  be  made. 

ADVANTAGES   OF   SILAGE 

Feeding  Economy. — On  the  average  farm,  corn  silage  can 
be  produced  cheaply  and  is  a  more  economical  feed  for  milk 
production  than  is  soilage.  It  has  frequently  been  stated 
that  soiling  crops  will  induce  greater  individual  production 
in  a  herd  than  will  silage,  but  this  is  very  doubtful ;  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  cost  of  production  per  hundred  pounds  of 
milk  will  be  less  in  the  case  of  silage  than  where  soiling  crops 
are  used.  As  economy  of  production  is  the  most  important 
item  demanding  the  attention  of  the  practical  dairyman,  it 
will  generally  be  found  that,  where  either  soiling  or  silage 
can  be  used  for  summer  succulence,  the  best  practice  will  be 
to  use  silage,  though  in  some  cases  both  are  fed. 

Labor  Saving. — The  harvesting  of  silage  is  performed  at  a 
time  when  the  labor  shortage  is  not  generally  as  acute  as  it 
is  at  other  seasons,  whereas  soiling  crops  must  be  harvested 
182 


DISAD\^\NTA(n:S   OF   SILiVCiE  183 

at  the  very  busiest  time  of  the  year.  This  is  in  favor  of  the 
silage  as  a  summer  feed;  in  addition,  the  labor  entailed  in  the 
actual  feeding  of  silage  is  considerably  less  than  in  the  feeding 
of  soiUng  crops.  This  factor  is  of  most  importance  where 
labor  is  scarce  and  the  greatest  production  per  man  is  desired. 

Where  soiling  crops  are  fed,  they  must  be  cut  and  hauled 
to  the  barn  daily,  and  in  wet  weather  this  renders  labor  condi- 
tions disagreeable.  Any  factor  which  makes  work  disagree- 
able really  increases  the  labor  requirements,  and  as  silage  can 
be  fed  as  conveniently  in  wet  as  in  dry  weather,  the  advantages 
of  silage  over  soiling  crops  on  this  account  are  evident. 

Feed  Reserve. — Silage  possesses  the  added  advantage  of 
keeping  for  a  relatively  long  period  of  time.  While  some 
silage  is  spoiled  by  age,  the  greater  portion  remains  in  a 
desirable  condition.  It  does  not  become  unpalatable,  as  do 
soiling  crops  when  maturity  is  reached,  and  it  does  not  fluctu- 
ate in  feeding  value  from  that  of  a  light,  washy  feed  to  one 
of  a  more  mature  and  dry  nature.  Where  silage  is  stored, 
an  excess  of  feed  from  one  year  can  be  conveniently  kept 
until  a  season  of  feed  scarcity,  when  it  will  still  be  in  good 
condition.  This  prevents  a  shortage  of  summer  succulence 
through  crop  failures. 

DISADVANTAGES   OF  SILAGE 

Lack  of  Variety. — A  lack  of  variety  in  the  succulent  portion 
of  the  ration  may  become  evident  when  silage  is  fed  throughout 
both  winter  and  summer.  This  becomes  increasingly  impor- 
tant when  silage  constitutes  the  main  part  of  the  summer 
succulence.  The  deficiency  of  the  corn  plant  in  ash  may  also 
prove  important,  unless  due  attention  is  given  to  the  mineral 
content  of  the  other  feeds  supplied.  Furthermore,  silage  is 
deficient  in  protein,  and  feeds  containing  a  considerable 
amount  of  protein  must  be  used  in  liberal  quantities  where 
silage  is  fed  extensively  at  all  seasons. 


184  SILAGE  VERSUS   SOILAGE 

Necessity  of  Small  Silo. — The  principal  disadvantage  of 
silage  as  a  summer  feed  is  the  small  size  of  silo  required. 
Silage,  to  be  of  good  quality  and  palatable,  must  be  removed 
from  the  silo  twice  as  rapidly  in  hot  weather  as  during  the 
winter  months.  The  silo  must  therefore  be  of  smaller  diam- 
eter, involving  additional  expense  in  the  saving  of  the  crop. 

Where  a  large  herd  is  maintained  this  will  necessitate  the 
building  of  small  silos  which  are  difficult  to  locate  conveni- 
ently, as  well  as  costly  to  erect.  Since  the  silage  must  be  fed 
rapidly  in  summer,  there  are  many  herds  which  are  not  large 
enough  to  warrant  the  erection  of  a  summer  silo.  The  small 
silo  costs  more  in  proportion  to  its  capacity  than  does  the 
large  one,  and  in  addition  permits  a  much  greater  proportion 
of  the  silage  to  spoil  around  the  edges  of  the  silo.  For  this 
reason  many  of  the  arguments  advanced  for  the  feeding  of 
summer  silage  do  not  apply  to  the  small  herd. 

ADVANTAGES   OF  SOILAGE 

Intensity  of  Production. — Through  the  utihzation  of  soiling, 
the  production  of  digestible  nutrients  per  acre  can  be  increased 
from  three  to  five  times  over  that  produced  by  pasturing 
This  is  primarily  due  to  the  heavy  yields  which  can  be  obtained 
with  soiling  crops,  and  it  is  really  a  conservation  of  land  as  it 
decreases  the  acreage  necessary  for  the  support  of  a  given 
number  of  cattle,  or  allows  a  greater  number  of  animals  to 
be  maintained  on  a  given  area.  In  soiling,  the  land  is  not 
subjected  to  the  tramping  that  a  pasture  receives  from  the 
cattle ;  not  only  is  the  elimination  of  the  waste  due  to  tramping 
and  puddling  possible,  but  the  land  is  also  kept  in  better 
condition  and  the  losses  due  to  fouling  and  the  uneven  distri- 
bution of  manure  are  prevented.  In  some  cases  also,  two 
crops  per  year  can  be  grown,  and  this  increases  feed  pro- 
duction. The  saving  of  land  by  soiling  has  been  frequently 
demonstrated,  and  as  the  result  of  seven  years'  work  at  the 


ADVANTAGES  OF   SOILAGE  185 

Iowa  Station  it  was  found  that  forty-two  milking  cows  could 
be  kept  during  the  summer  months  on  20  acres  of  pasture 
and  12  acres  of  soiling  crops. 

In  this  Iowa  work  the  average  length  of  the  pasturing 
season  was  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  days,  and  soiling  was 
fed  on  the  average  for  one  hundred  and  eleven  days,  the 
average  consumption  of  soilage  being  1.93  tons  per  cow  per 
season.  The  average  cost  was  $5.30  for  soiling  and  $3.30 
for  pasture,  or  a  total  of  $8.60  per  cow  per  season.  This 
compares  well  with  a  cost  of  Si  2  to  $18  per  cow  per  season, 
which  would  have  resulted  from  the  use  of  pasture  alone. 
The  cost  of  grain  has  not  been  figured  in  either  case,  but  it 
would  of  necessity  have  been  greater  if  the  pasture  had  not 
been  supplemented  with  soiling  crops. 

Manure  is  one  of  the  valuable  products  of  the  farm  that  is 
frequently  neglected  and  allowed  to  go  to  waste.  Where  the 
cows  are  on  pasture  the  manure  is  very  unevenly  distributed, 
and  so  is  not  effectively  used,  but  where  it  is  hauled  on  to  the 
land  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  soiling  crops  it  is  utilized 
to  the  greatest  advantage,  increases  the  yields  obtained  from 
the  farm  and  adds  to  the  fertihty  of  the  soil. 

The  feeding  of  soiling  crops  not  only  increases  the  number 
of  animals  that  can  be  kept  on  a  given  area,  but  it  also  stimu- 
lates the  production  of  the  individual  members  of  the  herd. 
This  increase  in  production,  combined  with  the  lowered  cost 
of  production  per  unit,  adds  considerably  to  the  net  income 
from  the  farm. 

In  many  systems  of  farming  a  large  amount  of  the  feed 
produced  is  wasted  and  not  consumed,  but  by  the  use  of  a 
good  soihng  system  this  can  be  avoided.  When  suitable 
soiling  crops  are  grown  they  are  utilized  very  thoroughly  and 
feed  wastage  is  prevented. 

Small  Intital  Outlay. — Where  soiling  is  practiced  no  large 
initial  outlay  is  called  for,  and  this  recommends  it  under  many 


186  SILAGE   VERSUS   SOILAGE 

conditions  where  the  building  of  a  silo  is  not  warranted  or 
must  be  postponed.  For  the  small  herd  that  cannot  support 
a  silo,  soiling  has  to  be  recommended  on  this  account. 

Variety  in  the  Ration. — The  variety  introduced  into  the 
ration  through  the  use  of  soihng  crops  is  of  great  value. 
Variety  is  as  valuable  in  the  succulent  portion  of  the  ration  as 
it  is  elsewhere,  for  not  only  does  it  insure  an  abundance  of 
ash  constituents  and  the  proper  variety  of  proteins,  but,  in 
addition,  a  variety  of  succulent  feeds  stimulates  the  appetite 
of  the  cow,  increases  her  feeding  capacity,  keeps  her  digestive 
system  in  good  working  order  and  has  a  beneficial  effect  on 
her  general  health.  This  not  only  gives  a  temporary  increase 
in  production,  but  also  leads  to  greater  milk  ^-ields  during 
the  succeeding  winter. 

Sometimes  pastures  are  badly  infested  with  garlic  and  other 
weeds  which  tend  to  taint  the  milk.  The  use  of  soiling  crops 
with  a  Hmited  amount  of  pasture  will  check  this  nuisance. 
Occasionally  it  will  be  necessary  to  feed  soihng  alone,  without 
pasture,  until  the  weeds  can  be  brought  under  control,  but 
on  the  whole  the  elimination  of  pasture  is  not  a  good  practice 
as  there  are  benefits  to  be  derived  from  it  which  cannot  be 
obtained  otherwise. 

DISADVANTAGES   OF  SOILAGE 

Labor  Requirements. — Soiling  crops  must  be  sown  in  com- 
paratively small  areas,  as  a  considerable  number  of  sowings 
are  needed  to  keep  the  supply  of  green  feed  ample  and  regular 
throughout  the  season.  These  small  plots  increase  the  labor 
requirements  of  seeding  and  growing  the  crops,  but  the  main 
drawback  to  a  soiling  system  is  the  large  amount  of  labor 
needed  in  the  harvesting  of  the  feed. 

The  green  feed,  to  be  in  the  most  palatable  and  appetizing 
condition,  must  be  cut  and  hauled  to  the  barn  daily,  as  feed 
that  is  stored  in  the  barn  will  ferment  and  spoil  very  rai')idly. 


DISADVANTAGES   OF   SOILAGE  187 

Even  in  a  system  of  partial  soiling,  which  is  the  common  prac- 
tice, and  with  a  fair  amount  of  pasture  available,  the  cows  will 
consume  from  30  to  70  pounds  of  green  feed  per  head  daily; 
consequently  the  labor  involved  is  considerable.  For  a  par- 
tial soiling  system,  with  a  herd  of  forty  cows,  two  men  and  a 
team  will  be  required  for  two  hours  daily  to  cut  and  haul  the 
green  feed  to  the  barn.  In  addition  more  labor  is  needed  in 
the  barn  in  feeding  soiling  than  in  feeding  silage.  This  heavy 
demand  for  labor,  at  the  busy  season  of  the  year,  militates 
against  the  use  of  soiling  in  many  cases. 

Succession  of  Succulence. — To  have  the  requisite  amounts 
of  green  feed  available  at  all  times  is  a  difficult  problem.  The 
var^-ing  climatic  conditions  and  the  consequent  changes  and 
inequalities  in  the  rates  of  ripening  of  the  various  crops  render 
the  time  at  which  a  given  crop  may  be  available  variable. 
The  average  yield  of  a  crop,  and  therefore  the  exact  acreage, 
needed  to  supply  sufficient  green  feed  for  a  herd  during  a  given 
period  of  time,  depends  largely  upon  the  weather  conditions; 
where  there  must  be  a  succession  of  crops  furnishing  the 
soiUng,  it  is  oftentimes  undesirable  to  utilize  any  surplus  for 
hay  production,  which  is  the  only  alternative  presented. 

The  time  during  which  a  soiling  crop  can  be  used  depends 
on  the  character  of  the  crop,  the  time  at  which  it  is  sown,  the 
soil  and  climatic  conditions.  Some  crops,  such  as  alfalfa,  are 
adapted  for  use  as  soiling  during  comparatively  short  periods, 
after  which  the  forage  becomes  too  mature  for  feeding,  while 
other  crops  are  available  for  use  through  quite  a  long 
period.  Thus,  the  task  of  meeting  the  needs  of  the  herd, 
under  changing  climatic  conditions  which  influence  the  yield 
and  time  of  ripening  of  the  crop  as  well  as  the  length  of  time 
during  which  it  may  be  fed,  is  a  difficult  one,  and  is  worthy  of 
serious  study  on  the  part  of  the  dairvman. 


188  SILAGE   VERSUS   SOILAGE 


SILAGE   OR   SOILAGE 


The  relative  merits  of  silage  or  soilage  for  supplementin<; 
the  dry  pastures  of  summer  are  in  dispute.  The  advisabilit}- 
of  furnishing  additional  succulent  feed  in  summer  is  appre- 
ciated, and  undoubtedly  there  are  conditions  under  which 
both  feeds  may  be  profitably  fed.  Either  silage  or  soilage  is 
essential  for  economical  milk  production  in  summer  in  many 
sections,  and  a  choice  between  them  will  depend  on  individual 
conditions. 

On  the  average  farm,  silage  is  the  more  economical  form  of 
succulence,  and  is  generally  to  be  recommended,  while  on 
small  farms  soihng  should  be  used  if  the  number  of  cows  is 
not  large  enough  to  warrant  the  erection  of  a  silo  for  summer 
use.  On  the  large  farm  the  summer  silo  can  generally  be 
recommended,  but  if  plenty  of  help  is  available  a  larger  number 
of  cows  can  generally  be  supported  by  growing  soiUng  crops 
than  be  feeding  summer  silage,  though  silage  will  give  cheaper 
milk  production  than  will  soilage. 

Investigations  conducted  at  the  Iowa  Station  over  a  period 
of  two  years  give  a  very  good  indication  of  the  relative  values 
of  silage  and  soilage  for  summer  milk  production.  Throughout 
both  seasons,  records  of  the  feed  consumption  and  milk  and 
butter-fat  production  of  the  cows  were  kept.  The  succulent 
feeds  were  fed  according  to  the  capacity  of  the  animals,  while 
the  grain  rations  were  controlled  by  the  production  of  milk 
and  butter  fat.  All  animals  were  at  pasture,  and  the  grain 
rations  were  fairly  liberal,  especially  during  the  second  }Tar 
when  a  large  number  of  the  animals  were  being  prepared  for 
fall  freshening. 

A  total  of  sixty  cows  were  used,  and  in  each  year  the  feeding 
period  was  divided  into  three  sections.  In  the  first  year  the 
silage  was  fed  in  the  middle  period  and  the  soilage  in  the  first 


SlLACiE   OR   SOILAGE 


189 


and  last  periods.     In  the  second  year  the  feeding  periods  were 
reversed.     Only  a  brief  summary  of  the  results  can  be  given. 

TABLE  XV 

Total  Feed  Consumption  and  Milk  Production  in  a  Comparison  of 
Silage  and  Soilage  as  Summer  Succulence 


Total  Feed 

Total  Production 

iVvcrage 
Live 

Succulence 

Orain, 
Pounds 

Pasture, 
Cow 
Days 

Succu- 
lence, 
Pounds 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Weight 

of 
Cows, 
Pounds 

16,115 
16,487 

1914 
1914 

56,904 
99,710 

40,477 
40,949 

1654 
1678 

1003 

Soilage 

In  the  tabulations  the  concentrates  were  grouped  together, 
and  the  price  used  for  the  mixture  was  determined  from  the 
ruling  prices  of  the  various  ingredients.  The  value  of  the 
silage  was  determined  from  the  price  of  corn,  while  the  cost 
of  the  soiling  crops  used,  amber  cane  and  a  mixture  of  oats 
and  peas,  was  determined  in  relation  to  the  silage  price 
from  comparative  work  done  at  the  Iowa  Station  in  the 
relative  cost  of  production  of  silage  and  soiling  crops.  The 
value  of  the  pasture  was  similarly  determined. 

TABLE  XVI 

Increased  ConsumptioiX  and  Production  in  Soilage  Periods  as 
Compared  with  Silage  Periods 


Increase 

Feed 

Production 

Average 
Live 

Grain      ISucculcncc 

Milk 

Fat 

Weight 
of  Cows 

Total,  pounds. .  .  . 
Percentage 

372              43,806 

2        1             75 

472 

24 

7 
6 

190 


SILAGE   VERSUS   SOILACiE 


It  is  very  noticeable  that  on  the  average  there  is  little 
change  in  the  grain  consumption,  milk  and  fat  yields,  or  live 
weights  of  the  animals;  it  is,  therefore,  safe  to  assume  that  as 
high  production  can  be  maintained  with  silage  as  with  soiling 
crops.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  noticed  that  the 
amount  of  succulent  feed  consumed  was  75  per  cent  greater 
where  soiling  was  fed  than  when  silage  was  used.  It  was 
found  that  when  silage  cost  $7  per  ton  and  soiHng  crops  $4 
per  ton  they  were  equivalent,  as  far  as  economy  of  production 
was  concerned;  in  each  case  the  feed  cost  of  production  was 
$1.60  per  hundred  pounds  of  milk  and  39  cents  per  pound  of 
butter  fat. 

The  next  point  is  to  determine  under  what  conditions,  if 
any,  the  one  feed  will  be  more  economical  than  the  other. 
This  may  be  done  by  determining  the  feeding  value  of  soiling 
crops  as  compared  with  corn,  through  a  wide  range  of  prices. 

TABLE  XVII 

Comparative  Values  of  Silage  and  Soilage  for  Summer  Milk 
Production 


Corn  per  Bushel 

Silage  per  Ton 

Soilage  per  Ton 

$ 

$ 

$ 

0  50 

5 

2.90 

0.65 

6 

3-45 

0.80 

7 

4.00 

0.95 

8 

4.55 

1 .  10 

9 

5- 15 

I   25 

10 

5 -70 

When  corn  is  worth  50  cents  per  bushel,  silage  has  a  value 
of  $5  per  ton  and  soiling  crops  are  worth  on  the  average  about 
$2.90  per  ton,  while  when  corn  rises  to  v$i.25  per  bushel  the 
values  for  silage  and  soiling  will  be  about  $10  and  $5.70, 
respectively,  for  the  purposes  of  milk  production.     As  soiling 


THE   SOILING   PROBLEM  191 

crops  cannot  be  produced  on  the  average  for  less  than  $4  to  $5 
per  ton,  this  means  that  as  long  as  corn  is  below  $1  per  bushel, 
corn  silage  will  be  a  more  economical  source  of  summer 
succulence  than  will  soiling  crops.  This  is  further  emphasized 
by  the  fact  that  only  the  costs  of  the  feeds  in  the  barn  have 
been  taken  into  consideration  and  more  labor  is  needed  in  the 
feeding  of  soilage  than  in  the  feeding  of  silage.  Under  the 
majority  of  conditions,  therefore,  corn  silage  is  to  be  preferred 
to  soiling  crops  for  summer  feeding  as  it  maintains  as  high 
yields  of  milk  and  butter  fat  as  does  soilage  and  is  more 
economical. 

THE  SOILING  PROBLEM 

When  it  is  found  necessary  or  advisable  to  use  soiling  crops 
instead  of  silage  as  a  supplement  to  pasture,  there  are  many 
factors  in  connection  with  the  production  and  feeding  of 
soilage  which  need  careful  consideration,  and  care  must  be 
taken  to  adapt  the  soiling  system  to  the  individual  conditions. 

Production  of  Soiling  Crops. — The  chief  difficulty  in  the 
successful  production  of  soiling  crops  is  in  keeping  a  continuous 
supply  of  succulent  green  feed  available  throughout  the 
summer.  The  main  factor  in  determining  the  success  of  this 
attempt  is  the  season,  but  under  even  favorable  conditions  at 
least  four  or,  better  still,  six  individual  sowings  should  be 
made  for  a  partial  soiling  system. 

Where  possible,  the  soiling  crops  should  be  inserted  in  the 
regular  rotation  of  the  farm,  in  the  place  of  corn  or  small 
grain.  If  the  farm  is  large  or  scattered  this  will  not  always  be 
practicable,  and  then  it  ^vill  be  necessary  to  grow  the  soilage 
continuously  on  some  piece  of  land  located  conveniently  to 
the  barns. 

The  land  for  soiling  should  be  well  worked  and  a  good  seed- 
bed prepared ;  as  large  yields  are  aimed  at,  liberal  use  of  ma- 
nure is  necessary.     This  is  especially  important  where  con- 


192  SILAGE   VERSUS   SOILAGE 

tinuous  growing  of  soiling  is  practiced,  as  the  production  of 
large  yields  of  green  feed  year  after  year,  without  fertilizing, 
tends  to  impoverish  the  soil. 

Seeding  should  be  Hberal.  This  is  most  miportant  with 
crops  such  as  amber  cane,  for  not  only  will  crops  be  slightly 
heavier  in  some  cases  with  thick  seeding,  but  they  will  also 
be  much  finer  in  quality.  Crops  that  are  seeded  thinly  tend 
to  produce  coarse-stemmed  plants  which  are  not  relished  by 
stock  and  result  in  a  large  amount  of  waste.  Thick  seeding, 
on  the  other  hand,  gives  a  fine-stemmed  succulent  forage  that 
is  readily  cleaned  up  by  the  cows  with  a  resultant  decrease  in 
waste  material. 

The  harvesting  of  soiling  entails  a  very  considerable  amount 
of  labor.  The  majority  of  the  crops  can  be  cut  with  a  mower 
and  sometimes  can  be  put  on  the  wagon  with  a  hay-loader, 
but  where  the  yield  of  green  feed  is  heavy  the  loader  will  not 
be  suitable.  Amber  cane  can  be  cut  with  a  small  grain  binder 
as  it  generally  stands  up  well,  and  the  bundles  are  much 
more  convenient  to  handle  than  is  the  loose  material.  Corn, 
when  used  for  green  feed,  should  be  cut  with  a  binder  if  any 
large  amount  is  used  daily. 

The  green  feed,  for  best  results,  must  be  cut  and  hauled 
daily  as  it  wilts  readily  if  left  in  the  field,  while  if  piled 
up  in  the  barn  it  heats  and  spoils  quite  rapidly  in  hot  weather. 
The  feed  is  very  unpalatable  when  in  either  of  these  conditions. 

Feeding  of  Soiling  Crops. — Soilage  can  be  fed  either  on 
the  pasture  or  in  the  barn.  Feeding  it  on  pasture  is  a  much 
more  convenient  method,  entailing  less  labor,  though  it  has 
its  disadvantages.  There  is  a  great  waste,  as  a  rule,  when 
the  green  feed  is  put  out  on  the  pasture,  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  cows  trample  and  foul  it.  In  addition  it  dries  out  rapidly 
and  becomes  unpalatable.  Where  it  is  spread  out  the  cows 
are  also  apt  to  injure  each  other  in  their  efforts  at  feeding. 
When  it  must  be  fed  on  the  pasture,  perhaps  the  best  method 


THE   SOILING   PROBLEM  193 

is  to  haul  it  out  just  before  the  cows  are  turned  out.  Other- 
wise the  cows  wait  for  the  soiUng  instead  of  feeding,  and 
when  the  green  feed  is  taken  out  the  danger  of  cows  being 
injured  is  increased. 

Feeding  in  the  barn  is  laborious,  but  on  the  whole  advan- 
tageous. The  wastage  of  feed  is  cut  down,  and  the  cows  are 
more  comfortable  in  the  barn  during  the  hot  hours  in  the 
middle  of  the  day.  When  they  are  kept  in  at  this  time  they 
are  protected  from  the  heat  to  some  extent  and  they  can 
also  be  sprayed  as  a  protection  against  flies. 

All  of  the  common  soiling  crops,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  corn,  can  be  conveniently  fed  in  the  barn.  Owing  to  the 
coarse  nature  of  corn  it  is  difhcult  to  feed  it  in  the  mangers 
unless  labor  is  available  to  cut  the  bundles;  in  many  cases, 
therefore,  corn  can  be  most  easily  fed  on  the  pasture,  though 
this  does  induce  a  considerable  amount  of  waste. 

Where  the  soiHng  is  given  on  the  pasture  it  is  usually  fed 
only  once  a  day,  but  when  fed  indoors  from  one  to  three  feeds 
may  be  given,  depending  on  the  amount  of  labor  available 
and  the  extent  to  which  soiling  replaces  pasture  in  the  main- 
taining of  the  herd.  Generally,  however,  more  than  two  feed- 
ings a  day  will  not  be  advisable  where  some  pasture  is 
available. 

The  amount  of  soiling  used  daily  depends  on  the  crops 
grown  and  the  quality  and  extent  of  the  pastures.  With  a 
partial  soiling  system,  such  as  is  most  generally  used,  from 
30  to  70  pounds  of  green  feed  per  cow  a  day  will  commonly 
be  consumed,  in  addition  to  pasture. 

In  the  feeding  of  soilage  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the 
inclusion  of  large  amounts  of  soil  with  the  green  feed.  Atten- 
tion to  this  point  is  especially  necessary  where  such  sparse 
growing  crops  as  soybeans  are  raked  into  windrows  after 
cutting.  Soil  particles,  adhering  to  or  mixed  with  the  green 
feed,  render  it  unpalalable  and  tend  to  cause  digestive  dis- 


194 


SILAGE   VERSUS   SOILAGE 


turbanccs.  The  feeding  of  soilage  that  is  wet  or  fermented  is 
another  cause  of  digestive  troubles.  Care  in  handling  will 
prevent  the  heating  or  fermenting  of  the  green  feed,  but 
owing  to  weather  conditions,  which  cannot  be  forecast,  it  is 
not  always  possible  to  get  feed  that  is  not  wet.  Where  the 
soiling  has  been  cut  when  wet,  it  is  advisable  to  limit  the 
amount  fed,  as  the  wet  feed  wall  often  produce  scours. 


PRACTICAL  SOILING  SYSTEMS 

A  large  and  varied  number  of  soiling  systems  could  be 
mentioned,  but  only  a  few  which  are  simple  and  practical 
will  be  suggested.  The  areas  given  in  outlining  these  are 
those  that  on  the  average  should  prove  suitable  with  a  herd 
of  about  fifteen  cows,  provided  that  ten  to  twelve  acres  of 
pasture  are  also  available. 

Simplicity  is  aimed  at  in  outlining  these  systems;  one  is 
suitable  where  alfalfa  is  available,  one  where  sweet-corn 
stover  or  green  corn  can  be  used  and  one  without  corn  or 
alfalfa. 

TAHLI'    XVITI 
A  SoiLixc;  System  with  Alfalfa 


Crop 

Area, 
Acres 

Approximate 
Date  of 
Sowing 

Approximate 

Date  of 
Harvesting 

Approximate 
Yield  per 
Acre,  Tons 

Alfalfa,  first  cutting..  . 
Oats     and     Canadian 
field  peas 

h 
h 

\ 

I 
I 

I 

Previous  year 

April  5 

April  20 
Previous  year 

May  5 
May  20 
June  20 
Julys 

June  10-20 

June  15-July  5 

June  30-July  10 
July  5-15 

July  10-25 
Jul)'  20- Aug.  20 
Aug.  i5-Sei)t.  20 
.Sept.  lo-Oct.  15 

8 
6 

Oats     and     Canadian 
field  peas 

Alfalfa,  second  cutting. 

Oats     and    Canadian 
field  peas 

Amber  cane 

Amber  cane 

Amber  cane 

s 

4 

S 

12 

12 

rR/\CTICAL   SOILINCJ    .SVSTKMS 


195 


TABLE  XIX 

A  SoiiJNc;  Systkm  with  Swekt-corn  Sto\kk 


Crop 

Area, 
Acres 

Approximate 
Date  of 
Sowing 

Approximate 

Date  of 
Harvesting 

Approximate 
Yield  per 
Acre,  Tons 

Oats     and     Canadian 

I 
I 

April  5 

April  25 
May  20 
June  25 

June  10 

June  lo-Jul}-  5 

July  1-25 

July  20-Aug.  25 

Aug.  is-Sept.  15 

Sept.  10-Oct.  IS 

6 

Oats    and    Canadian 
field  peas     

5 

12 

Amber  cane 

12 

Green    swecl-corn 
stover    

S 

TABLE  XX 
A  Soiling  Systi:m  without  Alfalf.v  or  Corn 


The  soiling  systems  outlined  will,  under  average  conditions, 
maintain  a  continuous  suppl}'  of  succulent  g'*een  feed  through- 
out the  summer  in  a  great  many  sections.  They  are  exceed- 
ingly flexible  and  can  be  altered  readily  to  suit  individual 
conditions.  There  is  no  hard-and-fast  rule  as  to  what  will 
be  a  successful  soiling  s}'stem,  and  the  individual  conditions 
must  alwavs  be  given  due  consideration. 


CHAPTER   XXI 
WINTER   MILK  PRODUCTION 

Early  summer  conditions,  as  already  pointed  out,  are  best 
suited  for  milk  production;  consequently,  the  aim  in  all-the- 
year-round  dairying,  which  is  the  most  profitable  type,  is  to 
make  winter  conditions  as  nearly  similar  as  possible  to  those 
of  early  summer.  The  ration  of  the  dairy  cow  must  be  bulky 
and  succulent,  and  the  provision  of  abundance  of  succulence 
is  one  of  the  main  problems  of  winter  feeding.  Attention  to 
other  considerations  is  also  necessary. 

Where  silage  is  available,  profitable  winter  feeding  is  easily 
possible,  especially  if  a  leguminous  hay  can  also  be  obtained. 
These  two  constituents  provide  the  necessary  bulk,  the  silage 
renders  the  ration  succulent,  the  legume  provides  a  consider- 
able amount  of  protein,  and  in  addition  these  feeds  can  gener- 
ally be  depended  on  as  a  cheap  source  of  digestible  nutrients. 
Where  roots  are  available  at  a  reasonable  cost  the  same  end 
can  be  attained,  but  roots  are  not  generally  as  available  as 
silage  in  quantities  sufhcient  to  be  of  any  great  importance. 
Where  silage  and  roots  cannot  be  obtained  dried  beet  pulp, 
when  soaked  before  feeding,  is  a  very  valuable  feed  for  render- 
ing the  ration  succulent.  It  can  also  be  fed  with  silage  or 
roots.  If  succulent  feeds  or  leguminous  hays  are  not  avail- 
able, the  winter  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  becomes  much  more 
difhcult  and  the  very  best  results  cannot  be  hoped  for. 

The  grains  that  can  be  used  profitably  in  winter  feeding 
depend  largely  on  the  roughages  that  are  available  and  the 
local  cost  of  concentrates.  The  cereal  grains  are  generally 
19() 


WINTER  MILK  PRODUCTION  197 

satisfactory  for  the  provision  of  energy-forming  materials, 
and  the  choice  between  them  will  be  determined  largely  by 
their  cost.  Where  succulent  feeds  are  available  the  choice 
of  high  protein  concentrates  will  be  determined  largely  by 
the  cost  of  the  digestible  protein  which  they  provide,  but 
where  succulence  is  scarce  the  action  of  the  feeds  on  the 
digestive  system  of  the  animals  is  a  factor  of  special  impor- 
tance. Cottonseed  meal,  because  it  is  constipating,  is  not 
suitable  for  milk  cows  receiving  no  succulent  feed,  whereas 
wheat  bran  and  old-process  linseed  oil  meal,  which  are  laxa- 
tive, are  especially  valuable  under  such  circumstances. 
Where  leguminous  hays  are  unavailable  and  dry  roughages 
of  a  less  nitrogenous  character  have  to  be  fed,  the  amount  of 
protein  that  must  be  provided  by  the  grain  ration  is  larger 
than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  grain  rations  which  would  be  satis- 
factory under  all  conditions,  but  a  few  general  suggestions  can 
be  made  which  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  the  formulating  of 
concentrate  rations  for  winter  milk  production.  The  rations 
given  are  satisfactory  under  the  conditions  mentioned,  but  they 
can  be  altered  in  accordance  with  local  prices  in  order  that 
the  rations  may  be  economical. 

The  grain  mixtures  suggested  have  been  worked  out  to 
suit  conditions  arising  from  the  availability  or  absence  of 
certain  roughages.  The  weight  of  the  cow  is  assumed  as  looo 
pounds,  and  the  production  as  30  pounds  of  3.5  per  cent  milk. 
This  would  indicate  a  daily  ration  of  about  10  pounds  of 
grain  in  addition  to  the  roughages.  Where  silage  is  available 
a  consumption  of  30  pounds  of  silage  and  10  pounds  of  hay 
per  day  will  be  about  the  amount  demanded  by  a  1000-pound 
cow,  while  in  the  absence  of  silage  about  double  the  amount 
of  hay  will  be  required. 

Only  a  few  concentrates  have  been  included  as  only  a 
general  U^pe  of  grain  ration  is  to  be  indicated.     The  corn- 


198 


WINTER    I\ITI,F^    PKODUCTTON 


and-cob  meal  can  be  re})lace(l  by  cracked  corn,  hominy  feed, 
rolled  barley  or  similar  feeds  as  required  by  special  circum- 
stances, and  the  proportions  of  corn  and  oats  would  also  be 
controlled  by  local  prices.  The  ground  oats  and  wheat  bran 
are  interchangeable  as  they  are  of  very  similar  value.  So  also 
are  the  oil  meal  and  cottonseed  meal  under  certain  conditions. 
Other  grains  and  by-produCts  can  be  introduced  as  the  market 
indicates. 

TABLE  XXI 
Grain  Rations  for  Winter  Use 


Roughage 

Corn  Silage 

and 
Clover  Hay 

Corn  Silage 

and 

Timothy  Hay 

Clover  Hay 

Timothy  Hay 

Nutritive  Ratio 
of  Roughage 

I  :  9 

I  :  15 

I  :  6 

I  :  15 

Nutritive  Ratio 
of  Grain 

I   :  6 

I   :  5 

1:6.5 

I  :  4 

Corn  -  and  -  cob 

meal 

Ground  oats.  .  . 
Wheat  bran,... 
Oil  meal 

lbs. 

6 

lbs. 

lbs. 

4 

I 
.... 

lbs. 

lbs. 

4 

lbs. 

4 
4 

lbs. 

4 

I 

lbs. 

3 
3 
3 

lbs. 

3 
6 

I 

lbs. 

4 
3 

lbs. 
3 

lbs. 

3 
3 

I 
3 

Cotton-sccd 
meal 

■ 

I 

In  the  case  of  the  less  valuable  roughages  limited  variety 
in  the  grains  is  suggested  as  only  a  few  concentrates  can, 
as  a  rule,  be  used  under  such  circumstances.  Cottonseed 
meal,  for  example,  is  inadvisable  when  silage  or  some  other 
succulent  feed  is  not  provided. 

If  succulent  feeds  and  legume  hays  are  both  unavailable 
the  winter  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  is  a  difficult  problem,  and 


WINTER   .AIILK    PRODUCTION  199 

the  very  best  results  cannot  be  obtained  under  such  conditions. 
The  grains  that  should  be  used  in  winter  feeding  depend 
largely  on  the  nature  of  the  roughage  ration  and  the  market 
prices  of  concentrates.  Where  succulent  feeds  are  used,  the 
demand  for  laxative  feeds,  such  as  bran  and  oil  meal,  is  not 
so  great  as  it  is  in  the  cases  where  only  dry  roughages  are  fed. 
The  concentrate  allowance  should  at  all  times,  and  especially 
in  winter,  consist  of  a  variety  of  palatable  constituents  as  this 
will  give  the  most  favorable  results.  The  actual  amount  of 
grain  fed  is  determined  by  the  production  of  the  cows. 

The  rations  shown  are  suitable  for  use  in  general  herd 
practice  and  have  been  worked  out  in  such  a  way  that  the 
relative  amounts  of  the  various  feeds  needed  to  mbc  a  batch 
of  looo  pounds  of  feed  are  indicated.  It  is  generally  most 
profitable  in  herd  feeding  to  do  this  rather  than  mix  up  small 
amounts  of  feed. 

With  consistent  methods  of  feeding,  the  milk  production  of 
dairy  cows  can  be  prevented  from  declining  rapidly  during  the 
winter  months,  and  the  cows  will  be  kept  in  such  a  condition 
that  they  will  respond  with  increased  production  when  turned 
to  pasture  in  spring. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

PREPARATION   OF  THE   COW  FOR  PRODUCTION 

Every  dairy  cow  worthy  of  the  name  needs  a  rest  between 
lactation  periods — others  take  it.  Long-continued  copious 
milk  production  is  a  heavy  tax  on  the  energy  of  the  cow,  and 
if  she  is  to  work  successfully  through  many  lactation  periods 
she  must  be  periodically  rested. 

THE  DRY   COW 

For  best  results  the  milk  cow  must  have  a  rest  of  six  to 
eight  weeks  between  lactations.  This  will  generally  be  a 
sufhcient  length  of  time  in  which  to  prepare  her  for  the  work 
of  the  following  year.  During  this  period  the  reserve  stores 
of  nutrients  in  her  body  are  built  up,  her  digestive  system  is 
cooled  and  rested,  and  in  addition  she  is  provided  with  the 
nutrients  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  fetus. 

The  amount  of  dry  matter  in  the  fetus  is  not  large,  but  the 
major  portion  of  it  is  formed  during  the  last  few  weeks  of 
pregnancy,  and  nutrients  to  be  used  in  its  formation  must  be 
provided.  A  cow  that  has  been  underfed  and  not  rested  will 
not,  as  a  rule,  produce  a  small,  ill-nourished  calf,  but  she  will 
generally  utilize  the  nutrients  stored  in  her  own  body  for  the 
production  of  the  fetus,  and  consequently  will  be  in  low 
condition  and  unable  to  produce  milk  to  the  best  of  her 
abiUty  during  the  subsequent  lactation  period.  The  amount 
of  nutrients  needed  for  the  building  of  the  fetus  is  perhaps 
equivalent  to  the  feed  required  for  the  production  of  a  pound 
of  milk  daily  throughout  the  lactation  period. 
200 


THE   COW   IMMEDIATELY   BEFORE   PARTURITION       201 

If  the  COW  is  dry  in  early  summer  she  will  need  very  httle 
feed  in  addition  to  what  she  can  obtain  from  good  pasture, 
unless  she  is  in  low  condition,  when  she  should  be  fattened 
with  such  feeds  as  cracked  corn,  ground  oats  and  wheat  bran. 

When  the  dry  period  occurs  in  winter  a  fair  allowance  of 
silage  should  be  given,  along  with  a  liberal  amount  of  legume 
hay  and  a  grain  ration  consisting  of  such  feeds  as  ground  oats, 
wheat  bran  and  oil  meal.  During  the  dry  period  the  ration 
should  be  laxative  and  should  contain  little  of  such  heating 
feeds  as  corn,  unless  the  cow  is  in  low  condition,  while  feeds 
such  as  cottonseed  meal  and  timothy  hay  should  be  wholly 
avoided. 

The  main  object  in  feeding  the  dry  cow  is  to  get  her  in  good 
condition,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  ration  laxative  and 
cooling  in  nature  and  provide  plenty  of  protein  and  ash  for  the 
building  up  of  the  fetus.  Liberal  feeding  of  the  dry  cow  is 
good  economy,  as  it  will  subsequently  be  repaid  with  increased 
milk  production. 

THE   cow  IMMEDIATELY  BEFORE  PARTURITION 

When  the  pregnant  cow  approaches  to  within  a  few  days 
of  freshening,  her  grain  ration  should  be  considerably  reduced, 
and  it  should  be  laxative  in  nature  as  this  is  a  great  aid  to  the 
preparation  of  the  cow  for  freshening.  A  mixture  of  two 
parts  of  wheat  bran  and  one  part  of  old-process  linseed-oil 
meal,  by  weight,  is  very  valuable  at  this  time  on  account  of 
its  laxative  action.  If  this  mixture  does  not  give  the  desired 
effect,  bran  mashes  can  be  fed,  or  a  dose  of  i  quart  of  raw 
linseed  oil  or  i  pound  of  Epsom  salts  can  be  administered.  Too 
free  use  of  purgatives  is  not  to  be  advocated,  as  it  may  result 
in  premature  dehvery  of  the  calf.  Freedom  from  milk  fever 
and  other  post-parturient  troubles  is  in  a  large  measure  due 
to  the  care  with  which  the  cow  is  handled  and  fed  just  previous 
to  freshening.     In  the  last  day  or  two  of  pregnancy   the 


202  PRKI'ARAIION    OF   TIIK    COW    l"OR    PRODIIC  TION 


THE   COW  IMMEDIATELY  AFTER   PARTURITION         203 

roughage  ration  should  he  hmitcd,  so  that  the  digestive  system 
may  not  be  overdistended  and  interfere  with  labor.  It  is  also 
well  to  replace  the  grain  ration  entirely  with  bran  mashes. 

THE    COW   IMMEDIATELY   AFTER   PARTURITION 

Parturition  is  a  severe  strain  on  the  cow;  therefore  while 
the  digestive  and  other  functions  of  the  animal  are  coming 
back  to  normal  the  ration  should  be  Hght.  For  a  day  or  two 
after  calving,  feed  the  cow  bran  mashes  in  addition  to  alfalfa 
or  clover  hay  and  a  limited  amount  of  silage.  During  this 
period  it  is  frequently  advantageous  to  warm  the  drinking 
water  slightly.  A  mixture  of  bran,  ground  oats  and  oil  meal 
may  be  used  to  replace  the  bran  in  a  day  or  two. 

A  period  of  thirty  days  is  required  to  put  a  fattening  steer 
on  full  feed,  and  at  least  this  length  of  time  should  be  given  to 
bringing  the  dairy  cow  on  to  a  full  ration.  The  importance 
of  this  is  easily  recognized  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  dairy 
cow  is  not  only  on  full  feed  much  longer  than  is  the  beef 
animal,  but  she  is  fed  heavily  during  several  successive  periods. 
Consequently,  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  raising  the 
ration  of  the  cow  to  a  profitable  maximum,  as  a  too  rapid  rise 
in  feed  will  result  in  indigestion,  bloat  and  other  digestive 
troubles. 

Beginning  with  4  or  5  pounds  of  grain  per  day  on  the 
fourth  or  fifth  day  after  freshening,  the  grain  should  be 
increased  at  the  rate  of  i  pound  on  every  third  or  fourth  day 
until  the  maximum  production  of  milk  is  reached.  At  this 
stage,  that  is,  when  the  milk  yield  does  not  increase  in  response 
to  additional  grain,  the  allowance  of  concentrates  should  be 
sHghtly  reduced,  and  it  will  generally  be  noted  that  the  cow 
will  then  increase  still  further  in  production.  In  other  words, 
the  cow  does  her  best  work  when  her  digestive  system  is  not 
overloaded.  The  amount  of  grain  the  cow  is  being  fed  at 
this  time  is  about  what  she  should  receive,  as  anv  less  will 


204 


PREPARATION   OF  THE   COW   FOR   PRODUCTION 


not  give  maximum  production,  and  additional  feed  would  be 
used  for  the  production  of  body  fat  and  so  would  not  only  be 
wasted  so  far  as  productive  purposes  are  concerned  but  would 
ultimately  lead  to  a  decreased  milk  yield. 


Fig.  XI.— ISIiss  of  St.  Louis  II,  in  Good  W<ir 

is  Well  Started. 


Starting  the  cow  properly  on  her  work  for  the  year  is  of 
paramount  importance,  as  the  cow  cannot  do  her  best  work 
unless  she  is  properly  fitted  during  the  dry  period  and  care- 
fully tended  both  before  and  after  freshening.  No  cow  should 
be  carelessly  fed  at  this  time  if  she  is  expected  to  produce 
well  in  the  subsequent  season. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

FEEDING  FOR  RECORDS 

In  general  herd  feeding  economical  production  is  the  main 
object,  and  though  this  generally  means  large  production, 
no  attempt  is  made  as  a  rule  towards  forcing  the  cows  beyond 
their  normal  economic  capacity.  When  official  and  semi- 
official tests  are  being  made  little,  or  generally  no,  attention 
is  paid  to  economy  of  production.  The  aim  is  then  to  get  the 
greatest  possible  production,  and  this  necessitates  even  greater 
care  in  the  preparation  of  the  cow  before  her  lactation  com- 
mences than  is  usual  in  ordinary  commercial  practice. 
Throughout  the  test  period  every  possible  care  has  to  be  taken 
to  have  the  cow  consuming  and  producing  to  the  height  of  her 
abiUty. 

FITTING 

The  fitting  of  cows  for  record  making  is  an  interesting  and 
important  consideration,  and  much  of  the  success  of  men  as 
feeders  of  record-breaking  cows  must  be  attributed  to  their 
ability  to  prepare  the  cows  for  their  work.  Without  success- 
ful preparation  the  best  possible  results  cannot  be  obtained 
with  animals  on  test. 

Short-time  Tests. — The  making  of  official  records  begins 
a  considerable  time  before  the  cows  freshen.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  the  condition  of  the  cow  at  the  time  of  freshen- 
ing determines  to  a  large  extent  her  butter-fat  production 
while  on  official  test.  The  most  common  practice  is  to  have 
the  cow  in  high  condition  just  before  parturition;  thus  the 
205 


206  FEEDIXC;    FOR   RECORDS 

stores  of  body  fat  are  drawn  on  later  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing milk  fat.  However,  a  few  men  state  that  their  best 
results  have  never  been  obtained  with  really  fat  cows;  they 
believe  that  the  practice  of  getting  cows  in  extremely  high 
condition  with  the  idea  of  making  large  short-time  records 
is  injurious  to  the  animals.  Undoubtedly  there  is  some  truth 
in  this  assertion,  as  a  dairy  cow  cannot  be  put  in  very  high 
condition  without  allowing  her  to  run  dr}'  for  a  considerable 
time,  and  in  this  there  is  a  danger  of  ultimately  shortening 
the  lactation  periods  and  injuring  the  breeding  capacity  of 
the  cows. 

The  majority  of  breeders  who  conduct  official  tests  believe, 
however,  in  having  the  cows  in  high  condition  at  the  time  of 
freshening,  though  they  disagree  as  to  the  methods  to  be 
pursued  in  attaining  this  end.  A  certain  amount  of  condi- 
tioning is  necessary  to  obtain  the  highest  possible  yield  of 
milk  from  a  cow  when  she  freshens,  but  above  a  certain  point 
the  influence  of  this  conditioning  is  on  the  fat  content  of  the 
milk  rather  than  on  the  milk  yield. 

The  best  method  of  fattening  a  cow  previous  to  parturition 
is  open  to  question,  and  the  opinions  of  practical  men  differ 
widely  on  it.  Definite  proof  has  been  obtained,  however, 
that  high  condition  in  a  cow  at  the  time  of  freshening  will 
result  in  an  enhanced  butter-fat  percentage  in  the  milk  for  a 
few  weeks  after  freshening. 

The  majority  of  feeders  believe  that  if  a  cow  is  to  produce 
milk  of  a  high  butter-fat  content  following  calving  she  must 
be  fattened  with  feeds  of  high  protein  content.  There  is  no 
definite  proof  that  this  is  correct,  but  it  is  possible  that  the 
excess  protein  of  the  feed  may  keep  the  protoplasm  of  the 
cells  in  which  the  fat  is  stored  in  a  highly  active  condition, 
so  that,  when  freshening  occurs,  these  cells  will  the  more 
readily  give  up  their  stores  of  fat  to  be  used  for  the  production 
of  butter  fat. 


FITTINCi  207 

In  fleshing  up  cows  for  official  test  work,  a  considerable 
time  is  usually  taken.  The  commonest  period  is  two  to  three 
months,  though  some  feeders  take  more  and  others  less  time. 
Those  who  use  the  shorter  periods  believe  that  when  the  body- 
fat  of  the  cow  is  laid  on  rapidly  it  is  in  a  rather  "  soft  "  condi- 
tion and  will  be  readily  liberated  during  the  early  days  of  the 
lactation. 

The  cow  being  fitted  for  test  should  have  a  legume  hay 
and  silage.  Roots  are  also  good  on  account  of  their  appetizing 
qualities  and  the  laxative  action  they  possess;  but  if  roots  are 
given  at  this  period  they  should  be  fed  only  in  limited  amounts 
as  it  is  not  good  policy  to  distend  to  too  great  an  extent  the 
digestive  organs  of  the  pregnant  animal.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  fitting  period,  corn  and  hominy  are  good  feeds  for  the 
production  of  body  fat,  but  in  the  later  stages  heating  feeds 
should  be  avoided  or  used  only  in  Hmited  amounts.  At  this 
period  old-process  linseed-oil  meal,  wheat  bran  and  ground 
oats  are  excellent  concentrates.  Throughout  the  fitting  period 
such  constipating  feeds  as  cottonseed  meal  should  be  avoided. 

Just  before  and  after  the  time  of  parturition  great  care  must 
be  exercised  in  the  feeding  of  cows  that  are  to  be  put  on  test, 
as  on  this  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  the  freedom  of  the 
cow  from  milk  fever  and  other  post-parturient  troubles  and  her 
ability  to  withstand  the  heavy  strain  of  forced  milk  and  butter- 
fat  production. 

Long-time  Tests. — The  preparation  of  the  cow  for  a  yearly 
test  is  not  as  important  as  the  preparation  for  short-time 
testing,  since  the  short-time  test  is  the  more  artificial.  There 
is  consequently  not  the  same  radical  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  methods  which  should  be  pursued  in  carrying  out  the 
fitting  process  for  long-time  tests.  Before  the  cow  is  started 
on  yearly  test  she  should  have  a  rest  of  two  to  three  months 
or  even  longer.  She  should  be  put  dry  as  early  as  possible, 
given  a  rest  of  a  month  or  so  without  grain,  and  then  be  put 


208  FEEDING   FOR   RECORDS 

on  a  grain  ration  and  put  in  as  high  condition  as  possible. 
The  statements  made  regarding  the  feeds  to  be  used  for  cows 
being  fitted  for  short-time  test  hold  true  for  those  to  be  tested 
for  a  longer  period. 

Continued  heavy  milk  production,  such  as  is  obtained  when 
a  cow  is  on  yearly  test,  is  a  tremendous  strain  on  the  reserves 
of  nutrients  stored  in  the  body  of  the  cow  and  on  her  nervous 
energy;  at  the  beginning  of  her  record  period  she  must, 
therefore,  be  in  the  best  physical  condition  possible.  A  cow 
may  decrease  several  hundred  pounds  in  live  weight  while  on 
yearly  test  and  so  she  must  be  fitted  to  withstand  this  deple- 
tion of  the  stores  of  energy  within  her  body. 

FEEDING  DURING  RECORD   PERIOD 

The  choice  of  the  ration  while  the  cow  is  on  test  deserves  as 
great  consideration  as  does  the  preparatory  ration.  While 
on  test  the  cow  must  be  kept  in  good  healthy  working  condition 
and  consuming  feed  to  the  maximum  of  her  abiUty  if  largest 
production  is  to  be  obtained.  The  greatest  danger  perhaps 
is  in  overfeeding,  as  overfeeding  will  cause  the  cow  to  go  off 
feed  and  decline  in  milk  production,  and  under  such  conditions 
it  is  frequently  difficult  to  bring  the  animal  back  to  the  high 
level  of  production  which  is  necessary. 

Short-time  Tests. — As  is  the  case  in  the  preparation  of 
cows  for  short-time  tests,  there  is  a  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  best  methods  to  be  pursued  in  feeding  the 
cow  on  official  test.  It  is  generally  believed  that  plenty  of  suc- 
culence and  a  leguminous  roughage  are  desirable  at  this  time, 
while  there  is  considerable  variance  in  the  views  regarding  the 
feeding  of  concentrates. 

One  group  of  feeders  maintain  that  during  the  test  period 
the  grain  allowance  should  be  limited  and  should  contain  a 
relatively  large  amount  of  protein,  as  such  a  ration  tends  to 
cause  the  cow  to  utilize  the  reserve  stores  of  fat  in  her  body 


FEEDING   DURING   RECORD   PERIUD  209 

for  the  formation  of  butter  fat.  Another  behef ,  held  by  some, 
is  that  a  large  grain  ration  of  high  protein  content  should  be 
fed  in  order  to  obtain  the  highest  milk  and  butter-fat  produc- 
tion during  a  short-time  test.  This  view  is  modified  by- 
others  who  state  that  the  gram  ration  must  be  large,  but  that 
it  need  not  necessarily  be  of  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  These 
views  are  not  easily  coordinated,  but  it  is  possible  to  say  much 
in  favor  of  each  of  them.  The  success  of  feeding  for  short- 
time  records,  however,  depends  very  largely  on  the  skill  of  the 
feeder  and  his  ability  to  fit  the  ration  to  the  changing  needs  of 
the  individual  animals. 

Beginning  a  few  days  after  calving,  the  cow  can  be  put  on  the 
test  ration.  Where  roots  are  available,  silage  is  seldom  fed  as 
the  sole  succulence;  in  fact,  wherever  possible,  silage  is  usu- 
ally fed  in  limited  amounts,  as  too  much  silage  decreases  the 
appetite  of  the  cow  for  roots  and  grain.  Roots  are  one  of  the 
mainstays  of  those  doing  official  testing  work,  and  it  is  prob- 
ably well  to  have  the  cows  accustomed  to  them  before  freshen- 
ing. Roots  are  appetizing,  stimulate  milk  production  and  are 
laxative.  The  cows  should  be  fed  as  many  as  they  will  con- 
sume, as  a  general  rule.  In  some  cases  the  daily  consumption 
will  run  over  lOO  pounds.  It  is  well  to  see  that  the  roots  do 
not  cause  scouring.  Beets  are  the  roots  most  commonly  used, 
though  others,  such  as  carrots  and  rutabages  are  also  satis- 
factory. 

For  the  cow  on  test,  a  legume  hay  should  be  provided. 
Nothing  can  equal  good  quality  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  under 
such  conditions,  as  they  pro\dde  more  nutrients  than  do  other 
hays,  as  well  as  rendering  the  ration  bulky.  The  cow  on 
test  needs  bulk  in  her  ration,  but  the  provision  of  digestible 
nutrients  must  not  be  sacrificed. 

The  grain  ration  is  started  gradually,  and  the  cow  never 
overcrowded  as  this  results  in  decreased  appetite  and  lowered 
production.     For  cnergy-i)roducing  feeds,  cracked  corn,  corn- 


210  FEEDING  FOR   RECORDS 

and-cob  meal,  or  hominy  feed  arc  quite  satisfactory,  and  oil 
meal  is  excellent  for  bringing  up  the  protein  content  of  the 
ration.  Some  feeders  use  gluten  feed  for  this  purpose,  but  if 
fed  liberally  it  tends  in  many  cases  to  put  the  cows  off  feed. 
Ground  oats  and  bran  are  also  excellent,  especially  as  they  add 
bulk  to  the  grain  ration  and  help  to  keep  the  cow  in  good 
working  condition. 

Long-time  Tests. — In  feeding  for  yearly  records  the  main 
object  is  to  keep  the  cow  consuming  to  the  maximum  of  her 
capacity  throughout  the  year.  This  can  be  done  only  by 
skillful  management,  and  throwing  the  cow  off  feed  at  any  time 
may  be  sufficient  to  spoil  her  chances  of  making  a  creditable 
record. 

Here,  also,  roots,  silage  and  a  legume  hay  generally  form  the 
basis  of  the  ration,  and  in  summer  some  good  succulent  green 
feed  should  be  provided.  The  feeding  of  the  succulent  feeds 
should  be  liberal,  as  they  keep  the  cows  in  good  working  order 
and  stimulate  the  milk  flow  to  a  maximum. 

A  heavy  grain  ration  is  essential,  but  at  least  thirty  days 
should  be  allowed  to  get  the  cow  on  full  feed,  as  overcrowding 
at  the  start  of  the  record  is  apt  to  lead  to  loss  of  appetite, 
digestive  troubles  and  sometimes  congestion  of  the  udder. 
The  grain  ration  must  contain  plenty  of  the  energy-providing 
feeds,  but  a  liberal  supply  of  protein  is  also  essential.  The 
cow  will  generally  lose  rapidly  in  weight  for  a  month  or  two 
at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  but,  after  this,  loss  in  weight 
should  be  prevented  as  far  as  possible  as  it  ultimately  saps 
the  vitality  of  the  cow  and  decreases  her  production.  On  the 
other  hand  the  cow  must  not  be  kept  too  fat,  as  this  also 
leads  to  lessened  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat  as  a  general 
rule. 

FEEDING  FOR  A  HIGH  FAT  PERCENTAGE 

It  is  the  behef  of  many  that  the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk 
can  be  influenced  by  feeding  and  other  practices.     This  is  in 


FEEDING   FOR   A   HIGH   FAT   PERCENTAGE  211 

the  main  incorrect.  It  has  been  shown  that  there  is  no  drug 
which  directly  influences  the  fat  content  of  milk.  Certain 
drugs,  which  are  reported  to  do  this,  simply  cause  some 
derangement  in  the  normal  processes  within  the  body  of  the 
cow.  Such  derangements  may  lead  to  a  change  in  the  butter- 
fat  percentage  present  in  the  milk,  but  this  change  is  down- 
ward as  often  as  upward,  and  ultimately  there  is  no  benefit 
to  be  obtained  by  such  doubtful  practices.  In  fact  they 
are  dangerous,  as  the  use  of  drugs  by  amateurs  for  this  ilUcit 
purpose  has  sometimes  resulted  in  the  death  of  valuable 
animals. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  certain  feeds  will  very  frequently 
lead  to  a  temporary  increase  in  the  fat  percentage  of  milk. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  increase  is  brought 
about  by  a  derangement  of  the  digestive  and  other  processes 
of  the  animal,  and  sometimes  leads  to  a  decrease  rather  than 
an  increase  in  butter-fat  yield.  The  increase  in  fat  percentage 
is  most  generally  obtained  when  the  feeds  of  this  character 
are  introduced  into  the  ration  suddenly  and  in  fairly  liberal 
amounts.  Their  effect  on  the  fat  content  of  the  milk  lasts 
but  a  few  days  and  in  many  cases  it  is  accompanied  by  a  loss 
of  appetite  and  other  derangements  in  the  cow.  Feeds  which 
are  frequently  used  for  this  purpose  are  cottonseed  meal, 
flaxseed  meal,  coconut  meal  and  peanut  meal. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

CALF-RAISING 

The  future  of  a  dairy  herd  always  depends  on  the  care  given 
to  the  rearing  of  the  heifer  calves  that  ultimately  must  take 
their  place  as  producing  individuals,  and  from  the  first  their 
feeding  must  receive  attention.  It  is  possible  to  purchase 
heifers  of  about  producing  age,  and  though  this  poUcy  may  at 
times  be  justified,  it  is  not  the  best  method  of  building  up  a 
really  productive  herd.  If  the  dairy  farm  is  to  be  a  construct- 
ive undertaking,  the  owner  must,  as  far  as  possible,  breed  and 
rear  the  animals  which  will  produce  his  marketable  products. 
If  the  heifers  that  are  added  to  the  milking  herd  are  to  do  their 
best  work,  it  is  essential  that  their  early  feeding  and  care  be 
such  as  to  induce  maximum  development,  as  underfed  individ- 
uals can  never  produce  to  the  maximum  of  their  natural 
ability  even  if  well  fed  during  their  period  of  usefulness. 
This  is  a  fundamental  fact  which  must  ne\'er  be  neglected  if 
the  most  economical  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

EARLY  TREATMENT 

The  practice  of  allowing  calves  to  remain  with  their  dams 
for  the  first  two  or  three  days  after  birth  is  to  be  recommended. 
This  permits  the  calf  to  nurse  its  dam  and  thus  secure  the 
colostrum,  or  first  milk,  which,  being  high  in  albumen  and  ash, 
is  so  essential  for  the  young  animal.  The  colostrum  is  laxative 
in  action,  assists  in  the  expulsion  of  the  meconium,  or  fecal 
matter  occurring  in  the  intestine  of  the  newborn,  and  stimulates 
the  activities  of  the  digestive  tract  of  the  calf.  This  practice 
212 


TEACHING   TO   DRINK 


213 


also  permits  the  calf  to  feed  as  often  as  desired,  while  the 
nursing  of  the  calf  is  beneficial  in  reheving  a  congested  or 
inflamed  udder. 

Where  it  is  not  possible  to  allow  the  calf  to  remain  with  the 
dam  longer  than  a  few  hours,  the  colostrum  should  be  milked 
and  given  warm  to  the  calf  in  small  quantities  and  at  short 


Fig.  XII.— The  Foundation  of  Production. 

intervals.     Whenever  possible,  however,  the  calf  should  be 
allowed  to  suck  for  two  or  three  da  vs. 


TEACHING  TO   DRINK 

One  of  the  decisive  periods  in  the  life  of  the  calf  is  when  he 
is  being  taught  to  drink.  If  the  calf  is  taken  from  his  dam 
soon  after  birth,  he  will  as  a  rule  learn  rapidly  to  drink; 
but  as  it  is  not  generally  advisable  to  practice  such  early  wean- 
ing, difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  later  in  getting  him  to 


214  CALF-RAISING 

take  to  the  bucket.  When  the  calf  is  to  receive  his  first  lesson 
he  must  be  hungry,  as  he  is  then  a  more  apt  pupil.  Only  a 
little  warm  milk  in  a  clean  bucket  should  be  offered,  and  very 
often  a  few  minutes'  coaxing  will  be  all  that  is  required  to  get 
the  calf  to  drinking.  Even  if  he  drinks  well,  however,  only  a 
little  milk  should  be  given  at  each  meal,  so  that  the  calf  will  be 
hungry  and  ready  to  drink  at  the  next  feed. 

When  the  calf  is  backward  at  drinking,  a  good  method  is  to 
get  him  in  a  corner  so  that  he  cannot  back  away,  and  put  one 
or  two  fingers  in  his  mouth.  He  will  suck  the  fingers,  and  while 
he  is  doing  this  his  head  should  be  lowered  gradually  until 
the  hand  is  in  the  milk.  The  calf  will  then  suck  up  some  of 
the  milk.  When  he  has  done  this  for  a  Httle  time,  the  fingers 
are  gradually  removed  and,  as  a  rule,  he  will,  after  a  few 
trials,  learn  to  drink  alone. 

If  neither  of  these  methods  is  successful,  the  feeder  should 
back  the  calf  up  in  a  corner,  get  the  calf's  neck  between  his 
legs,  put  the  head  down  into  the  bucket  and  hold  it  there  in 
the  effort  to  force  the  calf  to  drink. 

The  main  aids  to  success  in  teaching  a  calf  to  drink,  in  addi- 
tion to  keeping  the  calf  hungry  and  ready  for  meals,  are 
patience,  perseverance  and  practice. 

FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  IN  HAND   FEEDING 

A  few  fundamentals  are  largely  responsible  for  the  degree  of 
success  with  which  the  feeding  of  young  calves  is  carried  out. 
The  milk,  whether  whole  or  separated,  should  be  fed  as  soon 
after  milking  as  possible,  so  that  it  will  still  be  warm.  The 
buckets  used  must  always  be  clean,  which  requires  washing  and 
rinsing  out  after  each  feed,  scalding  daily,  and  airing  in  a 
sunlit  place.  The  buckets  should  not  be  thrown  down  un- 
washed in  a  corner  of  the  calf  pen.  Cleanliness  is  an  essential 
in  the  calf's  feed  bucket,  as  it  is  in  the  milk  pail. 


WHOLE-MILK   PERIOD 


215 


The  feeding  should  be  regular  in  time  and  amounts;  feeding 
at  irregular  intervals,  or  in  undetermined  or  irregular  quan- 
tities always  tends  to  produce  digestive  troubles  and  unthrifty 
calves.  The  feeding  should  always  be  guided  by  the  milk 
scales  or  quart  measure,  and  increases  in  the  ration  should  be 
gradual.  The  calf  should  be  kept  hungry  rather  than  overfed, 
as  overfeeding  causes  digestive  disturbances,  while  calves  that 
are  ready  for  their  meals  are,  as  a  rule,  thrifty. 

WHOLE-MILK  PERIOD 


When  the  calf  is  two  or  three  days  old  he  can  be  taken  away 
from  the  dam  and  fed  fresh,  warm,  whole  milk  in  quantities 
that  will  be  determined  by  his  size  and  vigor. 

The  average  birth  weights  of  the  calves  of  the  various  dairy 
breeds  dropped  on  Iowa  State  College  Dairy  Farm  from  1908 
to  1919  show  that  there  is  quite  a  wide  variation  in  this 
respect  between  the  breeds.  The  individual  variations  within 
the  breeds  are  even  larger.  This  shows  that  quite  a  wide 
variation  in  the  feed  requirements  of  young  calves  will  be 
manifest. 

TABLE  XXII 
.\\'KRAGE  Birth  Weights  of  Calves 


Sex 


AjTshirc. 
Guernsey 
Holstein. 
Jersey. . . 


Male, 
Pounds 


Female, 
Pounds 


Average, 
Pounds 


Calves  just  removed  from  their  dams  will,  as  a  rule,  require 
6  to  1 2  pounds  of  whole  milk  per  day.  The  feeding  should  be 
done  three  times  daily  until  the  calf  is  about  three  weeks  old, 


216  CALF-RAISIXG 

when  the  number  of  feeds  can  be  reduced  to  two  per  day,  and 
the  substitution  of  skim  milk  for  whole  milk  may  begin. 

SKIM-MILK  PERIOD 

This  substitution  must  take  place  slowly  and  may  be 
completed  when  the  calf  is  about  six  weeks  old.  At  this  age 
the  amount  of  skim  milk  required  will  vary  from  12  to  16 
pounds  per  day.  When  on  full  feed,  16  to  18  pounds  of  skim 
milk  daily  will,  as  a  rule,  be  sufficient  for  a  calf. 

While  skim-milk  feeding  should  continue  until  the  calf  is 
seven  to  eight  months  old,  for  the  very  best  results,  yet  many 
calves  are  successfully  reared  though  entireh'  weaned  when 
four  months  of  age.  The  additional  allow^ance  of  skim  milk, 
however,  keeps  the  calf  in  thrifty  condition,  sustains  rapid 
growth  and  promotes  true  economy  in  the  production  and 
development  of  high-class  dairy  cattle. 

USE   OF   OTHER  DAIRY  BY-PRODUCTS 

The  great  majority  of  dairy  calves  are  reared  on  skim  milk, 
but  in  some  sections  skim  milk  is  scarce  and  other  available 
milk  by-products  can  be  successfully  used  in  growing  out  the 
young  stock. 

Buttermilk. — The  value  of  buttermilk  for  calf-feeding  is 
ver}'  similar  to  that  of  skim  milk,  as  it  contains  about  the  same 
amount  of  nutrients.  Its  acid  reaction  is  not  at  all  detrimen- 
tal, pro\dded  the  calves  are  allowed  to  become  accustomed  to 
it  gradually.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  buttermilk  is  fed 
while  fresh  and  not  allowed  to  vary  widely  in  acidity. 

Whey. — In  cheese-making  districts  whey  is  used  to  some 
extent  for  calf-feeding.  Its  feeding  value  is  about  half  that 
of  skim  milk.  In  feeding  whey  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  supplements  fed  with  it  must  be  of  high  protein  content 
as  it  is  low  in  protein  and  high  in  carbohydrates,  while  skim 


MILK   SUPPLEMENTS   AND    SUBSTITUTES  217 

milk  has  a  relatively  high  content  of  protein.  It  cannot  be 
fed  in  as  large  quantities  as  can  skim  milk,  as  a  liberal  allow- 
ance of  whey  and  the  necessary  supplements  will  cause  the 
calves  to  become  paunchy.  The  amount  of  whey  should  be 
Hmited  and  the  grain  ration  increased. 

Dried  Products. — In  market  milk  districts  where  skim  milk 
is  scarce,  skim  milk  and  buttermilk  powders  are  sometimes 
used  for  calf-feeding.  They  are  mixed  with  water  and  fed  in 
the  same  way  as  skim  milk,  and  are  useful  feeds  when  not  too 
high-priced. 

MILK  SUPPLEMENTS  AND   SUBSTITUTES 

A  milk  supplement  is  usually  a  concentrate  allowance  fed 
along  with  skim  milk  to  replace  the  butter  fat  of  the  milk, 
while  a  substitute  is  fed  in  place  of  the  milk  when  the  latter 
is  not  obtainable. 

In  many  market  milk  sections,  whole  milk  and  even  skim 
milk  are  scarce  and  expensive  for  calf -feeding  purposes,  and 
though  the  entire  elimination  of  milk  for  calf-feeding  cannot 
be  recommended,  yet  at  times  it  is  necessary  that  milk  be 
replaced  to  a  certain  extent.  Consequently,  there  are  on  the 
anarket  a  large  number  of  milk  supplements  and  substitutes 
for  calf-feeding.  Some  of  these  are  good,  but  the  prices  asked 
for  all  of  them  are  generally  too  high  to  give  economical 
returns. 

When  sldm  milk  is  available  no  supplement  other  than  a 
good  grain  ration  is  needed,  but  where  even  skim  milk  is 
scarce  some  substitute  must  be  found.  Where  milk  sub- 
stitutes have  to  be  used  it  is  probably  best  to  defer  using  them 
until  the  calves  are  six  or  eight  weeks  old  and  then  substitute 
them  gradually  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  used  in  replacing 
whole  milk  with  skim  milk. 

A  good  milk  substitute  recommended  by  the  Indiana 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  consists  of  equal  parts  of  old- 


218  CALF-RAISING 

process  linseed-oil  meal,  hominy  feed,  Red  Dog  flour  and  dried 
blood.  One  pound  of  this  mixture  in  8  pounds  of  water  will 
be  sufficient  for  a  calf  six  weeks  old,  and  the  allowance  is 
increased  as  the  calf  grows.  Such  a  mixture  is  efficient  and 
economical,  and  will  give  good  financial  returns.  The  use  of 
such  a  home-made  mixture  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  purchase 
of  high-priced  proprietary  milk  substitutes. 

MISCELLANEOUS   FEEDS 

Milk  is  the  best  feed  for  the  young  calf,  but  it  would  be 
extremely  expensive  to  raise  calves  solely  on  whole  milk  or 
even  on  skim  milk.  In  addition  to  this,  the  digestive  system 
of  the  calf  develops  rapidly;  this  is  particularly  true  of  the 
rumen,  which  is  especially  adapted  for  the  handling  of  rough, 
bulky  feeds.  Consequently,  for  maximum  and  most  econom- 
ical growth  and  development,  feeds  other  than  dairy  products 
must  be  furnished  for  the  young  growing  calf.  The  importance 
of  those  additional  feeds  is  too  frequently  overlooked. 

Grain. — Young  calves  very  readily  begin  to  consume  grain, 
and  it  should  be  provided  for  them  about  the  time  the  substi- 
tution of  skim  milk  for  whole  milk  is  started,  or  at  three  weeks 
of  age.  A  practical  method  is  to  feed  the  grain  just  after  the 
calves  have  had  their  milk,  as  this  tends  to  prevent  them 
from  sucking  each  other.  A  good  concentrate  allowance  pro- 
vides an  abundance  of  the  muscle-  and  bone-building  nutrients, 
protein  and  ash,  and  also  contains  a  liberal  amount  of  fats  and 
carbohydrates  to  replace  the  fat  abstracted  from  the  milk. 
Corn,  oats,  bran  and  old-process  oil  meal  are  excellent  grains 
for  calves,  and  several  combinations  of  these  feeds  can  be  used 
with  satisfactory  results.  The  proportions  of  the  various 
ingredients  used  will  depend  on  feed  prices,  the  requirements 
of  the  calves  and  other  individual  factors.  In  some  cases 
corn  or  oats  is  used  as  the  sole  grain  for  calves,  but  this  practice 
cannot  be  advised,  as  corn  does  not  provide  sufficient  protein 


MISCELLANEOUS   FEEDS 


219 


or  ash  and  oats  contains  too  large  a  proportion  of  fibrous 
material  to  allow  it  to  be  used  satisfactorily  as  the  sole  con- 
centrate in  the  ration  of  young  animals.  It  is  easy  to  make 
for  calves  suitable  grain  mixtures  which  ■wall  consist  largely  of 
home-grown  materials.  A  few  mixtures  of  this  type  are  out-, 
lined  and  can  be  altered  to  suit  conditions. 


TABLE  XXTII 
Grain  Mixtures  for  Calves 


Grain 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Corn 

Wheat  bran 

S 

I 

3 
3 
3 
I 

5 

4 

I 

5 

Oats 

Oil  meal...  . 

4 

The  grinding  of  grain  for  calves  has  been  a  disputed  question, 
though  the  majority  opinion  has  been  that  young  calves  should 
receive  unground  grains.  This  belief  is  substantiated  by 
evidence  obtained  at  the  Iowa  Station  in  a  self-feeder  trial 
with  young  dairy  calves. 

Three  calves,  averaging  forty-five  days  of  age  and  being  fed 
milk  and  allowed  all  the  alfalfa  hay  they  would  consume, 
were  given  access  to  a  number  of  concentrates  in  a  self-feeder. 
The  feed  consumption  of  the  calves  was  determined  for  two 
periods  of  thirty  days  each. 

During  the  first  period,  when  a  large  amount  of  whole  milk 
and  little  skim  milk  was  fed,  the  calves  used  considerable 
quantities  of  protein  supplement,  especially  oil  meal.  They 
ate  no  hominy  and  practically  no  corn,  but  a  considerable 
amount  of  oats,  and  this  almost  entirely  in  the  form  of  the 
whole  grain. 

In  the  second  period  the  proportion  of  skim  milk  was  in- 
creased, and  the  calves  varied  their  grain  ration  to  comply 


220 


CALF-RATSTNG 


with  conditions.  Their  consumption  of  whole  oats  was 
larger,  while  the  amount  of  whole  corn  used  increased  enor- 
mously and  the  ground  grains  and  hominy  were  avoided. 
The  total  consumption  of  whole  grain  was  237  pounds  while 
only  1.5  pounds  of  the  ground  material  was  used.  This 
indubitably  shows  that  young  calves  prefer  whole  grain  and 
will  thrive  best  when  provided  with  such  materials. 


TABLE  XXIV 
Grain'  Coxsumptiox  by  Self-Fed  Calves 


Period 

I. 

II. 

Whole  milk 

Skim  Milk 

Pounds 
864 
168 

Pounds 
678 
678 

Shelled  corn 

Cracked  com 

Whole  oats 

I 
58 

62 

3 
0 

4 
0 

3 
3 

7 

108.6 

•3 
68.4 

Hominy  feed ;  .  .  . 

Gluten  feed 

•3 
1-9 
173 

Wheat  bran 

Oil  meal                  

75.6 

Alfalfa  hay 

91.9 

Nutritive  Ratio 

I  :  3-4 

1:3.5 

The  consumption  of  linseed-oil  meal  and  bran  increased  in 
the  second  period,  while  that  of  gluten  feed  decreased.  This 
decrease  was  perhaps  due  to  the  fact  that  the  heavy  consump- 
tion of  shelled  corn  at  this  time  provided  the  calves  with  all  the 
corn  protein  they  required. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  during  the  two  periods  the 
calves  kept  the  nutritive  \  atio  of  their  ration  about  uniform — 
the  nutritive  ratio  was  i  :  3.4  in  the  first  and  i  :  3.5  in  the 


MISCELLANEOUS   FEEDS 


221 


second  period — and  that  they  did  not  become  too  fat  as  might 
have  been  expected  from  an  unlimited  allowance  of  grain. 

In  practical  feeding,  grain  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
ftefore  the  calves  continuously,  as  it  becomes  stale  under  such 
conditions.  They  should  have  just  what  they  can  clean  up 
in  a  short  time — not  more  than  half  a  pound  per  head  daily 
until  they  are  eight  to  ten  weeks  of  age.  From  then  until 
weaning  time,  i  pound  per  day  will  usually  be  sufficient  under 
average  conditions. 

Hay. — The  importance  of  roughage  for  young  calves  is 
paramount,  as  without  its  presence  the  proper  development 
of  the  digestive  tract  is  impossible.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
at  Iowa  State  College  that  a  ration  devoid  of  roughage,  even 
though  it  contains  an  abundance  of  nutrients,  will  not  lead 
to  the  normal  development  of  the  calf. 


TABLE  XXV 
Excess  of  Nutrients  Supplied  to  Cal\ts  on   a  Whole-Milk  Ration 


Age,  Days 

Total 

Dry  Matter, 

Pounds 

Digestible 

Crude  Protein, 

Pounds 

Total  Digestible 

Nutrients, 

Pounds 

1-30 

31-60 

61-90 

QI-I 20                              ... 

8 

—  II 

-43 

—  74 
-86 

3 

I 
I 
0 

20 

13 

12 

1 

121-150 

I 

Throughout  the  experiment,  a  summary  of  which  is  tabu- 
lated, the  calves  were  being  suppHed  with  more  total  digestive 
nutrients,  in  the  form  of  whole  milk,  than  were  necessary 
for  maintenance  and  growth,  while  digestible  protein  was  also 
supplied  in  abundance  until  near  the  end  of  the  experiment. 
The  surplus  of  nutrients  in  the  ration  decreased  with  the 


222 


CALF-RAISING 


ad\'ance  of  the  experiment,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the 
calves  were  unable  to  handle  more  milk. 

Though  digestible  nutrients  were  being  supplied  in  abun- 
dance there  was  a  deficiency  of  dry  matter  in  the  ration  during 
all  periods  except  the  first;  as  a  consequence  the  calves  were 
unable  to  utilize  the  nutrients  in  the  milk  and  failed  to  develop 
normally. 

TABLE  XXVI 

Increase  m  Live  Weight  and  Body  Measurements  of  Calves 


Ration 

Weight, 
Per  Cent 

Height, 
Per  Cent 

Depth, 
Per  Cent 

Width, 
Per  Cent 

Milk  alone        

104 

345 

19 

35 

16 

57 

19 

75 

Normal 

The  calves  fed  milk  alone  did  not  make  the  live- weight  gains 
which  would  be  expected  from  calves  fed  normally,  and  their 
body  dimensions  also  increased  very  slowly.  On  post- 
mortem examination  the  experimental  animals  were  found 
to  be  lacking  proper  bone  development,  and  the  digestive 
tract,  especially  the  rumen,  was  poorly  developed.  This  work 
showed  not  only  that  abundance  of  digestible  nutrients  must 
be  supplied,  but  also  that  some  bulky  materials  are  needed  to 
allow  the  animal  to  utilize  feed  efficiently  and  develop 
normally. 

Roughage  is  essential  for  the  young  calf,  and  the  feeding  of 
hay  should  begin  at  about  the  same  time  as  the  feeding  of  grain. 
From  that  time  on,  hay  should  be  kept  before  the  calves. 

Alsike  clover,  being  fine-stemmed  and  leafy,  is  the  best  hay 
for  young  calves.  It  provides  plenty  of  bulk,  is  not  too  coarse, 
and  contains  a  liberal  amount  of  nutrients.  Red-clover  hay 
and  mixed  hay  are  also  satisfactory  and  are  widely  used. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS  223 

Alfalfa  hay  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  good  clover,  as  its  high 
content  of  protein  and  ash  renders  it  too  laxative  and  gives  it 
a  diuretic  action.  It  is  used,  however,  and  gives  good  results. 
Timothy  hay  and  the  straws  should  not  be  fed  to  calves, 
as  they  are  too  fibrous,  are  difficult  to  digest  and  contain  only 
small  amounts  of  useful  nutrients. 

Silage. — Silage  should  not  be  fed  to  young  calves,  and  if 
fed  at  all  to  those  under  weaning  age  it  should  be  in  very 
limited  quantities.  Even  then  care  must  be  taken  that  only 
the  fine  particles,  excluding  the  cobs  and  stalks,  are  fed,  and 
that  the  material  is  taken  directly  from  the  silo  and  not 
allowed  to  lie  in  the  manger  until  spoiled.  If  these  points  are 
not  given  due  attention  digestive  derangements,  especially 
scours,  will  result. 

Roots. — Where  roots  are  available  they  can  be  used  to 
advantage  in  calf-feeding.  Their  palatable,  succulent  nature 
renders  them  very  valuable  and  they  aid  in  keeping  the  diges- 
tive system  of  the  calf  in  good  working  order.  They  should 
always  be  cut  and  never  fed  in  quantities  larger  than  the 
calves  will  clean  up  in  a  short  time. 

Pasture. — Fall  and  winter  calves  that  have  been  properly 
tended  can  advantageously  be  allowed  access  to  pasture  in 
late  spring  or  early  summer,  but  spring  calves  should  not  be 
put  to  pasture  under  three  months  of  age,  unless  under  excep- 
tionally favorable  conditions.  Even  when  they  can  be  turned 
out  it  should  be  for  but  a  few  hours  during  the  cooler  time  of 
the  day.  Heat  and  flies  are  the  two  great  enemies  of  young 
calves  and  they  can,  as  a  rule,  be  more  easily  guarded  against 
in  the  barn.  For  older  calves,  however,  pasture  is  excep- 
tionally good  as  it  provides  abundance  of  palatable,  nutritious, 
succulent  feed,  and  in  addition  the  calves  secure  plenty  of 
fresh  air  and  exercise.  The  calf  pasture  need  not  be  large, 
but  it  should  be  provided  with  fresh  water  and  plenty  of 
shade. 


224  CALF-RAISING 

Water. — Calves,  even  when  being  fed  milk,  require  plenty 
of  water,  and  they  should  have  an  oi)portunity,  at  least  once 
a  day,  of  getting  all  the  fresh  water  they  desire.  It  has  been 
found  at  the  Iowa  Station  that,  even  in  winter,  calves  will 
drink  4  to  8  pounds  of  water  per  head  daily,  while  at  the 
Kansas  Experiment  Station  calves  receiving  skim  milk  con- 
sumed 10  pounds  of  water  per  head  per  day  during  summer. 
Stagnant  water  in  the  barnyard  or  in  ponds  to  which  the 
calves  have  access  may  induce  serious  intestinal  disturbances 
or  even  cause  general  poisonous  effects,  and  so  must  be 
avoided. 

Salt. — Salt  should  be  provided  at  free  will,  as  soon  as  the 
calves  are  old  enough  to  consume  hay  and  grain.  The  growing 
calf  requires  salt,  and  proper  utilization  of  feed  and  normal 
development  cannot  be  expected  in  its  absence. 

Condiments. — The  calf  needs  large  amounts  of  ash,  especi- 
ally lime  and  phosphorus,  for  the  building  of  bone.  Conse- 
qi^ently,  calves  are  sometimes  given  access  to  ground  rock 
phosphate  or  chalk.  Such  a  practice  is  probably  advisable 
where  the  ration  is  deficient  in  the  essential  ash  constituents, 
but  as  a  general  rule  it  is  not  necessary. 

Dried  blood  appears  to  have  a  beneficial  effect  in  the  check- 
ing of  scours.  Some  feeders  mix  dried  blood  with  the  grain 
ration  or  give  the  calves  access  to  a  mixture  of  dried  blood 
and  salt.  Powdered  charcoal  also  tends  to  prevent  digestive 
disturbances  and  is  sometimes  used  in  a  similar  way. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

FEEDING   DRY   STOCK 

The  greatest  amount  of  feed  on  the  dairy  farm  is  con- 
sumed by  the  milking  herd,  and  the  most  attention  is  generally 
given  to  the  feeding  of  the  producing  individuals.  This  is 
probably  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  immediate  results  of 
good  feeding  can  be  noticed  in  increased  production.  The 
feeding  of  the  heifers  and  herd  bulls,  which  should  also  be  recog- 
nized as  of  importance,  is  too  often  given  a  secondary  place. 

THE   GROWING  HEIFER 

Many  dairy  calves  are  well  treated  and  kept  in  good  condi- 
tion until  the  time  of  weaning,  but  are  then  neglected.  This 
is  poor  economy,  as  the  heifers  must  be  kept  in  good,  thrifty, 
growing  condition  right  up  to  the  time  of  freshening  if  they 
are  to  do  good  work  when  they  join  the  producing  herd. 
When  the  age  of  weaning  is  reached,  the  skim  milk  should 
not  be  withdrawn  from  the  calves  suddenly ;  three  or  four  days 
to  a  week  should  be  given  for  this  operation,  as  sudden  changes 
in  feeding  tend  to  throw  the  calf  ofif  feed  and  arrest  its  develop- 
ment to  a  certain  degree. 

If  fall  calves  have  been  properly  fed  and  managed  during 
the  winter  it  is  not  difficult  to  carry  them  through  their  first 
summer.  After  weaning  they  should  be  on  pasture  as  much  as 
possible  and  in  addition  receive  a  little  grain.  The  grain 
rations  can  be  very  similar  to  those  recommended  for  young 
225 


226  FEEDING   DRY   STOCK 

calves,  but  the  corn  and  oats  should  be  increased  at  the  expense 
of  the  bran  and  oil  meal. 

In  the  following  winter,  when  the  heifers  are  about  a  year 
old,  the  feeding  should  be  hberal  so  as  to  keep  the  animals  in 
good  growing  condition,  as  the  main  object  is  to  produce 
animals  with  a  good  constitution  and  adequate  capacity. 
The  feed  should  be  bulky  and  at  the  same  time  should  supply 
plenty  of  protein  and  ash,  as  the  protem  and  ash  aid  in  the 
building  of  muscle  and  bone,  and  bulky  feeds  distend  and 
develop  the  digestive  organs.  Alfalfa  and  clover  hays  are  the 
best  dry  roughages  to  feed  to  dairy  heifers  at  this  stage  of 
development,  and  silage  is  useful  in  limited  amounts. 

Where  silage  is  available,  1 5  to  20  pounds  per  day  may  be  fed 
to  dairy  heifers  during  the  winter.  With  7  or  8  pounds  of 
a  legume  hay  and  2  to  3  pounds  of  grain,  this  makes  an  excel- 
lent ration.  Where  silage  is  not  available,  the  allowance  of 
hay  can  be  doubled  and  an  extra  pound  or  two  of  grain  added. 
The  grain  ration  can  be  very  similar  to  that  used  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  development,  but  a  greater  predominance  of  the 
carbohydrate  feeds,  such  as  corn  and  oats,  is  to  be  preferred. 
Though  whole  grains  are  to  be  recommended  for  young  calves, 
it  is  probable  that  ground  grain  is  better  for  older  heifers. 

During  the  next  summer,  that  is,  when  they  are  about  eigh- 
teen months  old,  the  heifers  will  need  little  but  pasture  until 
fall.  After  that  the  treatment  may  be  similar  to  that  of 
the  previous  season  up  to  the  time  when  it  is  necessary  to 
prepare  them  for  their  first  freshening. 

Spring  and  summer  calves  will  be  on  milk  during  the  greater 
part  of  their  first  summer  and  will  not  have  access  to  much 
pasture.  At  the  beginning  of  winter  they  are  generally 
weaned  and  during  that  season  they  will  be  treated  in  much 
the  same  way  as  fall  heifers,  but  the  amount  of  silage  they 
receive  will  be  limited.  From  the  time  they  are  a  year  old 
the  treatment  for  spring  heifers  is  the  same  as  for  fall  calves. 


BULLS  227 


BULLS 


The  herd  sire  is  the  most  important  animal  on  the  dairy 
farm,  but  in  spite  of  this  he  is  frequently  given  less  attention 
than  any  of  the  other  animals.  The  degree  of  development 
and  the  vitahty  of  the  bull  are  to  a  considerable  extent  in- 
fluenced by  feeding.     A  bull  that  is  not  fed  liberally  cannot 


Fig.  Xin.     lowana  Mercedes  Homestead  in  Working  Condition. 

be  expected  to  develop  as  he  should,  while  improper  feeding 
frequently  leads  to  impotence. 

During  the  first  six  months  of  life  the  treatment  for  young 
bulls  is  the  same  as  for  heifer  calves.  At  six  months  of  age, 
however,  and  even  earHer  in  the  case  of  precocious  individuals, 
the  animals  of  different  sexes  must  be  separated.  From  this 
time  until  maturity  the  bulls  will  require  relatively  more 
grain  than  do  the  heifers.  During  sunmier  young  bulls  do 
well  on  pasture  and  grain,  while  in  the  winter  a  legume  hay 
and  crain  should  form  the  bulk  of  their  ration. 


228  FEEDING  DRY   STOCK 

With  older  bulls,  where  the  main  object  is  to  keep  them  in 
good  breeding  condition,  the  ration  should  consist  largely  of 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay  and  grain,  with  only  a  limited  amount  of 
silage.  Good  results  cannot  be  obtained  by  feeding  large 
quantities  of  silage  to  the  dairy  bull,  as  this  causes  over- 
distention  of  the  middle  and  tends  to  render  the  bull  paunchy, 
sluggish  and  slow  in  breeding.  Not  more  than  lo  to  15 
pounds  per  day  of  silage  should  be  fed.  The  grain  ration 
must  contain  a  fair  amount  of  protein;  a  mixture  of  cracked 
corn,  ground  oats,  wheat  bran  and  oil  meal  is  excellent.  The 
proportions  of  the  various  concentrates  to  be  used  and  the 
amount  to  be  fed  will  be  determined  by  the  individual  require- 
ments of  the  bull.  Where  older  bulls  have  access  to  some 
pasture,  they  should  not  be  made  to  depend  on  the  pasture 
entirely  but,  as  a  general  rule,  should  have  some  grain. 

The  young  bull  should  be  kept  growing  and  be  provided  with 
plenty  of  protein  and  ash.  The  bull  that  is  in  service  must  be 
kept  in  good,  thrifty  condition,  as  underfeeding  will  cause  the 
bull  to  fail  during  a  season  of  heavy  service,  and  overfeeding 
or  improper  feeding  will  cause  the  bull  to  become  fat,  paunchy, 
sluggish  and  unfit  for  breeding  purposes. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 
FEEDING   FOR   SHOW   AND   SALE 

A  GOOD  show-ring  record  or  a  creditable  average  price  at  a 
public  sale  is  one  of  the  best  forms  of  advertising  that  the 
breeder  of  pure-bred  live  stock  can  obtain.  For  success  in 
either  a  show  or  a  sale  ring,  good  cattle  are  necessary,  and  the 
man  showing  them  must  know  his  business.  In  addition, 
however,  the  feeding  and  management  of  the  cattle  have  a 
marked  influence  on  the  final  results.  Many  amateur  show- 
men look  upon  the  brush  and  blanket  as  the  main  essentials 
in  the  fitting  of  cattle,  forgetting  the  great  importance  of  the 
feed-bin. 

In  showing  cattle  it  is  necessary  to  have  them  in  the  proper 
condition  of  fleshing,  though  this  is  not  as  important  with  dairy 
cattle  as  it  is  in  the  case  of  beef  cattle.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact,  however,  that  the  condition  of  an  animal  may  have  a 
considerable  influence  on  its  final  ranking  in  the  show  ring. 
The  condition  in  which  an  animal  may  be  shown  varies  with 
the  breed;  Jerseys  and  Guernseys  are  shown  relatively  thin, 
while  Holsteins  and  Ayrshires  must  be  fairly  smooth  in 
fleshing.  Animals  that  are  too  thin  present  a  poor,  unpre- 
possessing appearance,  while  those  that  are  in  too  high  con- 
dition may  appear  coarse  and  lacking  in  refinement,  and  may 
be  discriminated  against  as  lacking  the  indications  of  quality 
in  a  dairy  animal. 

The  degree  of  flesh  in  which  an  animal  should  be  shown  will 
very  often  depend  on  individual  characteristics  as  certain 
faults  are  emphasized  or  diminished  by  the  condition  of  the 
229 


230  FEEDING   FOR   SHOW   AND   S.\LE 

animal.  For  example,  a  cow  that  is  coarse  o^'er  the  withers 
may  often  be  :mpro\-ed  considerably  in  appearance  by  a 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  flesh  she  carries. 

In  dairy  cattle  a  deep,  wide,  roomy  barrel  is  desired,  as  this 
indicates  capacity  for  handling  feed.  This  is  largely  con- 
trolled by  feeding,  and  everything  should  be  done  to  develop 
capacity  in  the  animals  to  be  shown.  Overdistention  of  the 
middle  should  be  avoided,  as  this  imparts  an  ungainly  and 
frequently  an  unthrifty  appearance. 

The  quality  of  the  skin  and  hair  in  cattle  is  very  largely 
affected  by  feeding,  as  well  as  by  some  managerial  practices. 
The  hide  of  the  dairy  animal  should  be  soft,  pliable,  loose  and 
relatively  thin,  and  covered  with  a  fine,  smooth  coat.  All 
tendency  towards  harshness  should  be  avoided;  the  feeding 
will  control  this  to  a  considerable  degree. 

EARLY   PREPARATION 

The  time  of  beginning  the  early  preparation  of  the  animal 
for  showing  will  depend  largely  on  its  condition,  but  plenty  of 
time  should  be  given  and,  as  a  rule,  at  least  two  to  three 
months  will  be  required.  The  roughage  ration  should  consist 
of  palatable  constituents  with  as  much  succulence  as  possible. 
A  good  legume  hay  with  silage  or  roots  forms  the  best  possible 
basis.  Dried  beet  pulp,  fed  in  a  soaked  condition,  is  also  very 
valuable  as  a  substitute  for  silage  or  roots,  where  these  are 
not  available,  and  it  is  also  a  good  plan  to  use  it  in  small 
amounts  continuously  or  to  substitute  it  at  intervals  for  the 
silage  or  roots,  so  as  to  give  added  variety  to  the  ration. 
Green  succulent  feeds,  such  as  green  alfalfa,  amber  cane  and 
sweet-corn  fodder,  are  also  excellent.  The  main  object  in 
feeding  these  roughages  is  to  keep  the  animal  in  good  physical 
condition,  as  well  as  to  provide  nutrients,  and  to  develop 
plenty  of  capacity  in  the  animal. 

The  grain  ration  should  consist  of  palatable  concentrates 


FINAL   FITTING  231 

suited  to  the  tastes  of  the  animals  and  fitted  for  the  laying  on 
of  fat  and  the  keeping  of  the  digestive  system  in  good  working 
order.  Corn,  oats  and  bran  are  very  valuable  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  hominy  feed  is  also  good.  Old-process  linseed-oil 
meal  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  concentrate  there  is  for 
fitting  a  herd,  as  it  not  only  fattens,  but  puts  a  bloom  and 
finish  to  the  coat  that  can  be  obtained  with  no  other  feed; 
it  also  renders  the  skin  soft  and  pliable  and  increases  the  oily 
secretions  so  much  desired  in  some  breeds.  It  is  best,  how- 
ever, to  feed  oil  meal  during  the  last  four  or  five  weeks  only 
or,  if  before  that,  in  limited  quantities,  as  after  prolonged 
feeding  of  linseed  meal  an  animal  may  go  "  stale  "  and  the  hide 
and  coat  may  not  have  the  condition  and  appearance  desired. 
In  the  feeding  of  calves  for  show  or  sale  it  is  necessary  that 
they  have  all  the  milk  they  can  handle,  and  this  should  be 
supplemented  with  good,  bright  clover  hay  and  a  grain  ration 
of  corn  or  hominy,  oats,  bran  and  oil  meal.  As  is  the  case 
with  older  cattle,  the  oil  meal  should  be  limited  in  amount 
until  near  the  end  of  the  fitting  period. 

FINAL   FITTING 

The  shipping  of  the  cattle  to  show  renders  some  changes  in 
feeding  necessary.  While  the  animals  are  on  the  road,  silage 
is  unavailable,  so  before  they  leave  it  is  well  to  have  them 
accustomed  to  a  succulent  ration  of  roots  alone  or  beet  pulp. 
Roots  can  generally  be  obtained  at  the  main  shows,  and  beet 
pulp  is  convenient  as  it  can  be  used  when  the  cattle  are  in 
transit.  Except  for  these  preparations  and  the  liberal  feed- 
ing of  oil  meal,  the  feeding  will  be  httle  changed,  though  the 
danger  of  overfeeding  must  be  guarded  against.  An  animal 
can  be  overfed  a  month  or  two  before  the  show  and  bad  results 
may  be  remedied  in  time,  but  overfeeding  a  day  or  two 
before  showing  may  be  fatal  to  success. 

The  cattle  must  be  shown  with  a  good  fill  to  indicate  their 


232  FEEDING  FOR  SHOW  AND  SALE 

capacity  for  handling  feed.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  with- 
hold water  from  the  animals  for  some  time  before  showing  and 
salt  them  well,  then  to  get  them  to  eat  liberally  and  then  fill 
with  water.  This  process  may  take  a  considerable  time  on 
occasions,  and  it  is  a  common  practice  to  get  the  animal  well 
filled  up  and  give  the  last  drink  just  before  showing.  Some 
animals,  however,  have  to  get  all  the  fill  at  once,  as  they 
will  not  drink  a  second  time.  Individual  characteristics  have 
to  be  studied  in  this.  There  are  certain  points  to  be  guarded 
against  at  the  time  of  filling  the  animals,  as  overfilling  may 
tend  to  cause  the  skin  to  become  tight.  It  may  also  induce 
an  ungainly  gait  and  where  carried  to  excess  will  chill  the 
animal  and  spoil  the  chances  in  the  ring. 

Fitting  cattle  for  show  or  sale  is  an  art,  and  only  by  constant 
attention  to  feeding  and  management  and  interest  in  the 
peculiarities  of  the  individual  animals  can  success  be  obtained, 
even  though  the  herd  be  individually  excellent. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

WATER   AND   SALT 

The  concentrates  and  roughages  given  to  dairy  cattle  are 
generally  considered  high-priced  and  so  are  given  plenty  of 
attention;  and  there  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  many  to 
neglect  two  very  important  constituents  of  the  ration,  water 
and  salt.  They  are  ubiquitous  and  cheap,  and  consequently 
their  importance  is  minimized.  Water  and  salt  are  just  as 
important  as  the  other  constituents  of  the  ration ;  in  fact  they 
are  absolutely  essential,  and  so  must  not  be  neglected. 

WATER 

Water  is  absolutely  essential  for  the  maintenance  of  life  and 
for  the  production  of  new  body  tissue,  and  its  importance  for 
the  milk-producing  cow  can  easily  be  appreciated  from  the 
fact  that  87  per  cent  of  milk  is  water.  Water  must  be  pro- 
vided in  abundance  for  all  classes  of  live  stock  and  they 
should  have  all  they  want. 

It  has  already  been  demonstrated  that  water  is  consumed  in 
considerable  amounts  even  by  milk-fed  calves,  and  it  has  been 
found  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  that  milk- 
producing  cows  will  consume  from  3  to  5  pounds  of  water  for 
each  pound  of  milk  produced.  Heavy  producing  cows  con- 
sume large  amounts  of  feed  daily,  but  the  weight  of  the  feed 
eaten  is  frequently  small  when  compared  with  the  water 
consumption. 

The  two  main  essentials  in  the  water  supply  are  abundance 
233 


234  WATER   AND   SALT 

and  purity,  A  dependable  supply  must  be  obtained  if  all  of 
the  animals  on  the  farm  are  to  receive  as  much  as  they  need, 
and  purity  is  essential  as  a  safeguard  for  their  health.  For 
these  reasons  deep-well  water  is  the  best.  Surface  water 
should  be  avoided,  as  it  is  generally  very  variable  as  a  source 
of  supply  and  is  subject  to  contamination  which  may  render 
it  dangerous. 

During  the  summer,  water  should  be  provided  for  the  cows 
when  at  pasture,  and  should  be  in  a  tank  if  possible.  If  a 
stream  is  the  source  of  supply,  it  should  be  so  protected  that 
the  cows  cannot  stand  in  it  and  convert  it  into  a  puddle. 
Water  should  also  be  available  where  the  cows  can  obtain  it 
on  their  way  between  the  pasture  and  the  barn  as  they  gener- 
ally tend  to  consume  considerable  amounts  of  it  at  such 
times. 

In  winter  the  cows  should  not  be  turned  into  wind-swept 
lots  and  forced  to  drink  ice-cold  water  on  which  the  surface 
ice  has  just  been  broken.  Water  should  be  pro\aded  in  the 
exercise  lots,  but  tank  heaters  should  be  provided  to  keep  the 
temperature  of  the  water  well  above  freezing.  Means  for 
watering  the  cows  in  the  barn  should  be  provided  if  possible; 
for  this  purpose  two  methods  are  in  common  use — individual 
drinking  cups  or  a  continuous  cement  manger  with  a  faucet 
at  one  end  and  a  drain  at  the  other. 

The  individual  drinking  cups  keep  water  before  the  cows 
at  all  times  and  eliminate  the  labor  of  watering,  but  they  have 
their  drawbacks.  They  are  expensive  to  install  and  some- 
times difficult  to  keep  in  good  repair.  In  some  cases  the 
bowls  tend  to  collect  dirt,  and  so,  instead  of  providing  the  cow 
with  fresh  water,  they  continually  contaminate  her  supply. 
Again,  cows  will  occasionally  force  the  valve  of  the  cup  open . 
so  that  it  will  not  close,  and  when  this  happens  during  the 
night  a  flooded  barn  is  the  result.  In  the  case  of  cows  being 
kept  in  pens  and  forced  for  records,  and  perhaps  in  the  case  of 


SALT  235 

calves,  the  indi\adual  cups  have  some  advantages,  but  for  the 
general  milking  herd  individual  drinking  cups  are  not  thor- 
oughly practical,  especially  as  freezing  is  apt  to  occur  where 
exposed  pipes  supply  the  cups. 

The  continuous  cement  manger  presents  none  of  the  dis- 
advantages of  the  individual  watering  cups,  and  by  its  use  the 
cows  can  be  watered  two  or  three  times  daily  with  very  little 
difficulty.  The  use  of  the  manger  as  a  watering  trough  also 
acts  as  an  added  incentive  to  keeping  it  sweet  and  clean. 
No  matter  which  system  of  watering  is  used  the  cows  should 
have  the  opportunity  of  getting  all  the  water  they  desire. 

SALT 

Of  the  utmost  importance  is  the  supply  of  salt,  as  salt  is 
necessary  for  the  proper  functioning  of  the  body  and  for  milk 
production.  It  is  necessary  for  all  classes  of  dairy  stock, 
though  their  requirements  vary  widely.  The  amount  of  salt 
consumed  daily  is  governed  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the 
hve  weight  of  the  animal,  by  the  amount  of  milk  produced  and 
by  the  nature  of  the  ration.  In  addition  the  individual 
variations  in  requirements  for  salt  are  very  great,  and  though 
it  is  impossible  to  predetermine  the  salt  consumption  of  any 
cow,  the  average  amount  required  is  perhaps  about  i  ounce 
per  head  per  day. 

Some  cows  take  salt  daily  and  are  fairly  regular  in  their 
consumption  of  it,  while  others  may  go  for  several  days  or 
even  a  few  weeks  without  taking  any  salt,  and  then  take  a 
large  supply  and  abstain  from  it  for  another  long  period. 

There  are  three  main  methods  of  supplying  salt  to  milk- 
producing  cows — namely,  mixing  it  with  the  feed,  providing  it 
at  stated  intervals,  and  giving  it  to  them  at  free  will.  Mixing 
it  with  the  feed  is  not  satisfactory  as  some  cows  will  get  more 
salt  than  they  require,  while  others  will  not  get  enough. 
The  same  holds  true  practically  for  salting  at  intervals. 


236  WATER   AND    SALT 

The  best  method  is  to  keep  salt  in  front  of  them  at  all  times, 
as  then  each  cow  gets  what  she  wants  and  when  she  wants  it. 
While  the  cows  are  on  pasture,  a  salt  box  should  be  kept  in  the 
pasture  and  in  winter  a  box  of  salt  should  be  kept  in  the 
exercise  lot. 

There  are  on  the  market  salt  rolls  and  other  preparations  to 
be  kept  affixed  to  the  mangers.  These  are  not  practical  as 
the  cows  lick  them  unevenly  and  the  rolls  break  and  fall  oflf. 
Rock,  compressed  and  crushed  salt  are  all  used  for  dairy- 
cattle,  and  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  which 
should  be  used;  in  practice  there  is  very  httle  difference 
between  them  as  long  as  the  cows  obtain  all  they  desire. 
Bulls  and  young  stock  should  also  receive  all  the  salt  they 
want. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

FEEDING   METHODS 

The  supplying  of  the  cow  with  the  requisite  amount  ot  teed 
is  not  the  only  feeding  problem  with  which  the  dairy  farmer 
is  confronted.  The  ration  should  not  only  be  of  the  proper 
character,  but  should  be  fed  in  the  best  possible  maimer. 
The  influence  of  the  method  of  feeding  on  the  production  of 
the  cow  and  on  the  general  economy  of  the  dairy  operations 
must  both  be  considered. 

ORDER  OF  FEEDING 

Much  more  important  than  the  time  or  order  of  feeding  is  the 
regularity  with  which  it  is  done.  It  does  not  do  to  feed  a 
cow  just  when  the  feeder  feels  inclined:  she  should  have 
regular  meal  hours.  Many  find  it  ad\isable  to  feed  the  grain 
before  the  roughages  as  the  cow  eats  her  grain  rapidly  and 
then  takes  her  time  with  the  coarser  feeds.  A  very  good 
method  is  to  put  the  grain  on  top  of  the  silage;  this  not  only 
allows  her  to  have  her  grain  first  but  also  generally  causes  her 
to  consume  some  silage  with  it  and  helps  to  lighten  up  the 
grain  and  prevent  digestive  troubles.  The  grain  is  sometimes 
fed  at  milking  time,  and  the  cows  are  perhaps  a  little  more 
contented  while  being  milked  if  they  then  have  grain  before 
them. 

Hays  which  may  cause  dust  in  the  barn,  and  feeds,  such  as 
silage  and  rutabagas,  which  tend  to  impart  taints  to  the  milk, 
should  be  fed  after  milking  and  not  before.  A  good  method  is 
237 


238  I'KKDIXC;    METHODS 

to  feed  the  hay  two  or  three  tmies  per  da}'  and  the  silage  and 
grain  twice.  This  allows  the  cow  to  make  better  use  of  her 
feed  than  she  would  do  if  it  were  fed  less  frequently  and  in 
larger  quantities.  Grain,  if  fed  only  once  daily,  in  a  large 
quantity,  may  also  at  times  tend  to  cause  digestive 
disturbances. 

FEEDING  OF  ROUGHAGES 

The  most  convenient  way  of  feeding  silage  is  to  use  a 
wagon,  which  can  be  filled  at  the  silo  and  pushed  around  in 
front  of  the  cows,  and  feed  the  silage  with  a  scoop.  The 
installation  of  overhead  tracks  greatly  facilitates  this  process. 
If  a  few  scoopfuls  of  silage  are  weighed  occasionally,  the  silage 
can  be  fed  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  and  with  the  knowl- 
edge that  each  cow  is  receiving  the  required  amount. 

Baled  hay  is  convenient  for  feeding  purposes,  but  where 
home-grown  hay  is  used  the  hay  chutes  should  be  so  placed 
as  to  allow  the  feeding  to  be  done  with  the  minimum  amount 
of  trouble  and  without  causing  too  much  dust  in  the  barn. 
The  allowance  of  hay,  like  the  allowance  of  silage,  should  be 
weighed  occasionally. 

FEEDING   OF  CONCENTRATES 

The  mixtures  and  quantities  of  grain  to  be  fed  should  be 
determined,  as  has  already  been  advised,  for  each  cow  individ- 
ually wherever  possible.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  this  is 
not  convenient  as  it  involves  a  large  amount  of  labor.  A 
general  mixture,  which  is  found  to  be  economical,  can  be  made 
up  and  weighed  out  to  each  cow.  A  number  of  methods  of 
feeding  the  grain  ration  are  in  general  use,  and  a  few  of  these 
may  be  mentioned. 

I.  A  cabinet  of  drawers,  each  of  which  is  large  enough  to 
hold  the  grain  allowance  for  a  cow  for  one  day,  is  provided. 


FEEDING   OF   CONCENTRATES  239 

Each  day  the  grain  allowance  for  each  cow  is  weighed  up 
and  placed  in  the  appropriate  drawer,  and  when  feeding  time 
comes  the  cabinet  is  wheeled  in  front  of  the  cows  for  feeding 
purposes.  This  method  involves  a  considerable  amount  of 
time  and  labor,  and  in  practice  can  only  be  advocated  where 
a  number  of  cows  are  on  test  and  everything  possible  is  being 
done  to  cater  to  their  appetites  so  that  maximum  feed  con- 
sumption may  lead  to  the  greatest  possible  production  of  milk 
and  butter  fat. 

2.  Sometimes  the  feed  boxes,  instead  of  being  kept  in  a 
cabinet,  are  stored  on  a  shelf  above  the  cows.  This  method 
is  very  similar  to  the  one  just  mentioned,  but  is  even  more 
laborious. 

3.  Where  a  wide  feeding  alley  is  available,  a  row  of  covered 
boxes,  each  of  which  is  large  enough  to  hold  the  grain  for  one 
cow  for  a  week  or  more,  may  be  built  along  the  wall.  The  feed 
is  weighed  up  and  placed  in  these  bins  and  then  measured  out 
at  feeding  time  with  a  scoop.  This  method  induces  the 
crowding  up  of  the  alleyways  and  makes  it  difficult  to  keep 
all  the  bins  in  good,  clean  condition;  therefore  it  cannot  be 
recommended. 

4.  A  very  satisfactory  method  is  to  have  a  feed  wagon  which 
is  divided  into  several  compartments,  each  containing  a 
separate  feed.  To  the  wagon  is  attached  a  spring-balance 
scale,  and  the  concentrates  can  be  weighed  out  for  each  cow 
quite  conveniently.  Where  an  individual  grain  mixture  is  to 
be  made  up  for  each  cow,  this  method  is  very  suitable. 

5.  The  best  method  in  general  herd  practice  is  to  make  up  a 
grain  mixture  which  is  known  to  be  economical,  and,  from  the 
feed  wagon,  weigh  or  measure  out  the  amount  required  by 
each  cow.  Satisfactor}-  feeding  can  be  done  in  this  way 
with  a  minimum  amount  of  labor.  Where  this  method  is 
used  there  may  at  times  be  a  few  cows  which  will  need  some- 
thing in  addition  to  the  general  grain  mixture,  but  this  can 


240  FEEDIXC;   METHODS 

easily  be  provided.  The  additional  material  required  in  such 
cases  will  generally  be  an  extra  allowance  of  protein  supple- 
ment, and  a  supply  of  this  can  be  kept  in  the  feed  wagon,  in 
a  sack  or  bucket. 

With  each  of  these  methods  there  should  be  a  simple  feed 
sheet  showing  what  each  cow  is  to  receive.  In  this  way 
accurate  feeding  will  be  done  and  the  maximum  economical 
production  of  milk  will  be  obtained. 

PREPARATION    OF   FEEDS 

The  preparation  of  feed,  because  of  the  influence  it  has  on 
the  palatability  and  utilization  of  the  ration,  is  worthy  of 
consideration.  Additional  preparation  may  at  times  render 
feeds  more  palatable  and  sometimes  also  more  digestible; 
in  such  cases  the  more  highly  prepared  feeds  are  advisable, 
provided  that  the  cost  of  preparation  is  not  so  high  as  to 
neutralize  the  increased  returns  obtained  as  the  result  of  the 
additional  preparation. 

Grinding. — Grinding  and  rolling  are  advisable  with  many 
grains.  Such  preparation  generally  renders  the  feed  more 
palatable  and  reduces,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  amount 
of  grain  which  passes  through  the  digestive  tract  of  the  animal 
unacted  upon  by  the  digesti\'e  juices.  Grinding  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred with  such  grains  as  corn  and  oats,  while  rolling  is  more 
advantageous  in  the  case  of  barley,  as  finely  ground  barley, 
unless  thoroughly  mixed  with  bulky  concentrates,  tends  to 
form  pasty  masses  which  are  difficult  to  digest. 

Corn  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  fed  cereal  grains,  and  as 
there  are  more  methods  of  preparing  corn  than  other  grains, 
attention  to  the  cost  of  preparation  of  corn  is  desirable. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  are  differences  of  fair  amount 
in  the  cost  per  hundred  pounds  of  corn  grain  in  the  various 
corn  preparations,  and  this  must  be  taken  into  consideration 


PREPARATION   OF   FEEDS 


241 


when  determining  which  will  be  the  most  economical  prepara- 
tion to  use. 

TABLE  XXVII 
Cost  of  Corn  Preparations 


Cost  per  Bushel 

Cost  per  100  Pounds 

Preparation 

Preparing, 
Cents 

Total, 
Cents 

Feed, 
Dollars 

Corn  Grain, 
Dollars 

Ear  corn 

4 

ID 

50 
5^ 
54 
60 
62 

•71 
•74 
,96 
1.07 
.89 

.89 

•93 

.96 

1.07 

I. II 

Broken  ear  corn 

Shelled  corn 

Ground  corn 

Corn-and-cob  Meal .  . 

Chopping. — In  the  case  of  dry  roughages,  chopping,  cutting 
or  shredding  is  sometimes  practiced.  It  is  not  generally 
advisable,  but  where  cows  are  being  pushed  for  high  production 
it  may  at  times  be  advisable  to  cut  some  of  the  hay  finely, 
moisten  it  and  mix  it  with  the  grain  ration  to  render  it  more 
bulky.  Shredded  corn  stover,  though  not  a  good  feed,  can 
be  given  to  dry  stock,  and  what  is  not  eaten  can  be  used  as 
bedding. 

Soaking. — Grains  are  sometimes  soaked  in  water  and  fed 
as  a  mash  or  slop,  depending  on  what  proportion  of  water  is 
used.  The  main  advantage  to  be  obtained  from  this  is  in  the 
increased  amount  of  water  which  is  consumed.  In  a  few 
cases,  for  example  with  dried  malt  sprouts,  soaking  may 
improve  the  palatability  of  the  feed  and  at  the  same  time 
tend  to  prevent  digestive  disturbances. 

There  are  two  main  cases,  however,  in  which  soaking  can  be 
advocated,  namely,  in  the  case  of  bran  mashes,  and  with 
dried  beet  pulp.  Bran  mashes  are  used  for  correcting  digestive 
disturbances,  and  for  keeping  the  animals  on  feed;  they  are 


242  FEEDING   METHODS 

one  of  the  most  valuable  aids  to  the  feeder.  Dried  beet  pulp 
is  sometimes  mixed  and  fed  with  the  grain  ration,  but  this 
is  not  generally  advisable.  It  should  be  soaked  and  fed  with 
or  in  place  of,  silage  and  roots. 

Cooking. — In  certain  European  sections  the  cooking  of 
grain  for  dairy  cows  is  a  common  practice,  but  under  American 
conditions  it  is  not  economical  and  should  not  be  practiced. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
FEEDING  ECONOMY 

The  main  aim  of  the  dairyman  is  profit,  and  considerable 
attention  must,  therefore,  be  paid  to  economy  of  production. 
Increased  production  without  corresponding  profits  is  not  an 
incentive  to  improving  the  dairy  industry.  The  factor  of  feed 
is  the  largest  single  item  in  the  cost  of  milk  production;  in 
fact,  it  is  greater  than  all  other  items  combined,  as  it  will 
on  the  average  constitute  about  60  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of 
production.  Consequently,  the  economy  of  feeding  is  the 
most  important  factor  with  which  the  dairyman  has  to  con- 
tend. Intensive  feeding  leads  to  increased  production;  but  a 
point  can  be  reached  above  which  the  cost  of  milk  production 
is  so  great  that  the  increased  production  ensuing  will  not  meet 
in  returns  the  increased  cost  of  feed.  In  commercial  feeding, 
therefore,  the  best  practice  is  to  push  the  production  of  the 
cows  up  to  this  most  profitable  maximum  and  no  further. 

At  various  points,  practices  which  lead  to  economy  of  pro- 
duction have  been  discussed;  but  a  few  principles  which  are 
applicable  under  all  conditions  are  deserving  of  collective 
consideration. 

INDIVIDUAL   FEEDING 

No  matter  whether  a  dairyman  has  one  cow  or  a  hundred, 
the  individual  cow  is  the  ultimate  unit  to  be  considered.  It  is 
not  enough  to  have  half  of  the  cows  producing  at  a  profit 
while  part  of  this  profit  is  used  to  pay  for  the  keep  of  the  other 
individuals  in  the  herd.  Every  cow  must  be  given  a  chance 
243 


244  FEEDING   ECONOMY 

to  be  profitable,  and  if  she  will  not  respond  she  should  be 
disposed  of.  This  necessitates  attention  to  the  individual 
requirements  of  the  animals  and  the  practice  of  feeding  them 
according  to  their  producing  ability. 

A  very  good  example  of  this  was  obtained  in  the  case  of  a 
herd  in  an  Iowa  cow-testing  association.  The  herd  consisted 
of  ten  cows.  During  one  month  in  winter  they  were  being 
fed  a  roughage  ration  of  corn  silage,  timothy  hay  and  corn 
stover.  Each  cow,  no  matter  what  her  production — and  they 
varied  considerably  in  this  respect — was  given  a  daily  allow- 
ance of  9  pounds  of  ear  corn,  3  pounds  of  ground  oats,  i  pound 
of  Hnseed-oil  meal  and  i|  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal.  The 
man  in  charge  of  the  cow-testing  association  persuaded  the 
owner  to  change  his  ration,  and  in  the  following  month  the 
cows  received  a  roughage  ration  very  similar  to  that  mentioned 
and  a  grain  mixture  of  200  pounds  of  corn-and-cob  meal,  100 
pounds  of  ground  oats,  200  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  and 
100  pounds  of  linseed-oil  meal,  each  cow  being  allowed  i  pound 
of  grain  for  each  3  pounds  of  milk  produced. 

The  result  was  that  the  total  production  was  increased  from 
5754  pounds  of  milk  and  226  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  the  first 
month  to  5697  pounds  of  milk  and  254  pounds  of  fat  in  the 
second  month.  Of  greater  importance,  however,  are  the  fol- 
lowing facts:  in  the  first  month  the  feed  cost  for  the  herd  was 
$171,  and  the  value  of  the  milk  and  butter  fat  $168 — resulting 
in  a  charge  of  $3  against  the  owner  for  milking  his  cows  twice 
daily  during  that  month;  in  the  second  month  the  feed  cost 
had  been  reduced  to  $101,  and  the  returns  from  the  products 
increased  to  $191 — leaving  a  net  return  over  feed  cost  of  $90 
to  the  farmer,  though  the  prices  of  feed  and  butter  fat  were 
the  same  in  both  months. 

This  increase  in  the  net  returns  was  due,  to  some  extent, 
to  the  improvement  in  the  nature  of  the  grain  ration,  but 
mainly  to  the  fact  that  the  cows  were  being  fed  according  to 


LIBERAL   FEEDING 


245 


{)roduction.  This  can  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  the  amount 
of  grain  comsumed  in  the  first  month  was  4495  pounds,  while 
that  consumed  in  the  second  was  1899  pounds;  the  average 
grain  ration  had  been  reduced  from  14^  pounds  to  6  pounds 
per  cow  daily. 

LIBERAL  FEEDING 

The  inherent  capacity  to  produce,  present  in  any  animal 
worthy  to  be  called  a  dairy  cow,  will  manifest  itself  most 
strongly  just  after  parturition.  Many  cows  will  produce  well 
for  a  few  weeks  after  calving,  not  because  of  the  ration  they 
are  receiv-ing,  but  in  spite  of  it.  It  is  continued  heavy  produc- 
tion throughout  the  lactation  that  leads  to  profits,  and  to 
induce  this  liberal  feeding  is  essential. 

The  advantages  of  liberal  feeding  are  clearly  apparent  in  the 
case  of  an  Iowa  herd  which  was  under  the  supervision  of  a 
cow-testing  association  for  two  years.  This  herd  consisted  of 
eleven  cows.  In  the  first  season  they  were  on  pasture  for  six 
and  one-half  months,  while  in  the  second  they  were  pastured 
for  only  five  months.  Their  consumption  of  other  feeds  and 
their  production  is  tabulated. 

TABLE  XXVIII 
Record  of  ax  Iowa  Herd  for  Two  Years 


Year 

A\ERAGE 

Production 

Average  Feed 
Consumption 

Average 

Feed  Cost, 

Dollars 

Average 
Returns 

Over 

Feed  Cost, 

Dollars 

Milk, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Pounds 

Grain, 
Pounds 

Hay, 
Pounds 

Silage, 
Pounds 

I 

4845 
7150 

237 
352 

996 
2192 

2437 
2926 

2240 
3503 

62.40 
104.90 

77.16 
150-36 

246  FEEDING    ECONOMY 

In  the  second  year  the  pasture  season  was  shortened — a  good 
idea  under  local  conditions, — the  hay  allowance  was  increased 
by  about  20  per  cent  and  the  silage  by  over  50  per  cent.  In 
addition  the  grain  was  more  than  doubled.  The  results 
obtained  justified  these  changes,  however,  as  not  only  was  the 
average  production  increased  from  237  pounds  to  352  pounds 
of  butter  fat,  but  the  returns  over  feed  costs  were  increased 
from  $77.16  per  cow  in  the  first  year  to  $150.36  in  the  second 
year,  even  though  the  feed  cost  had  been  increased  from 
$62.40  to  $104.99  pe^*  cow. 

Liberal  feeding,  controlled,  of  course,  by  the  producing 
ability  of  the  cows,  practically  doubled  the  returns  over  feed 
cost  in  this  case ;  and  the  results  indicate  what  the  pursuance 
of  rational  feeding  methods  will  accompHsh. 

USE  OF  HOME-GROWN  FEEDS 

The  dairy  cow  must  be  looked  on  as  the  market  for  home- 
grown feeds.  Through  her  can  be  marketed  roughages  that 
could  not  otherwise  be  disposed  of,  and  she  will  return  as  large 
net  returns  from  the  farm-grown  grains  as  will  live  stock  of 
any  other  type.  Though  she  is  to  be  looked  on  as  a  market 
for  the  roughages  of  the  farm,  some  effort  should  be  made  to 
meet  the  demands  of  the  market. 

Some  succulence,  in  the  form  of  silage,  roots  or  other 
material,  must  be  provided  for  winter,  and  silage  or  soiling 
crops  are  needed  to  supplement  short,  dry  pastures  in  summer. 
Legume  hays  should  be  produced  to  supply  the  dry  roughage 
the  cow  needs  in  winter,  and  she  can  utilize  efl[iciently  the 
corn,  oats  or  barley  grown  for  grain.  The  dairy  farm  should 
be  self-supporting  as  far  as  these  constituents  of  the  ration 
are  concerned. 


THE   PROTEIN   SUPPLY  247 


THE  PROTEIN   SUPPLY 


Though  the  dairy  farm  can  furnish  practically  all  of  the  con- 
stituents needed  in  the  ration  of  the  dairy  cow,  there  is  one 
gr(>up  of  feeds  which,  in  general,  have  to  be  purchased.  These 
are  the  concentrates  of  high  protein  content.  The  ration 
may  be  satisfactory  in  every  other  way,  but  for  good  producing 
cows  an  extra  supply  of  protein  will  be  necessary  in  addition 
to  that  contained  in  the  group  just  mentioned.  As  a  general 
rule,  this  extra  supply  of  protein  can  only  be  provided  by  such 
factory  by-products  as  cottonseed  meal,  linseed-oil  meal, 
peanut  meal  or  gluten  feed. 

The  advantages  of  providing  this  extra  feed  can  again  be 
illustrated  by  the  results  obtained  in  an  Iowa  herd  under  the 
supervision  of  a  cow-testing  association.  In  the  first  year  the 
cows  had  silage,  mixed  hay  and  pasture  for  roughage,  and 
throughout  the  year  the  only  grain  allowance  was  495  pounds 
of  ground  oats  per  cow.  In  the  second  year  the  silage  was 
increased  somewhat,  while  the  hay  allowance  and  the  pasture 
season  were  reduced.  The  most  marked  change  was  in  the 
grain  ration,  however,  which  was  increased  to  an  average  of 
1 183  pounds  per  cow  of  a  mixture  of  ground  oats,  cracked  corn 
and  bran,  with  an  additional  average  allowance  of  219  pounds 
of  cottonseed  meal.  These  are  the  average  allowances,  but 
in  the  second  year  each  cow  was  fed  according  to  production. 

As  a  result  of  this  the  average  production  of  the  herd  was 
increased  from  304  pounds  to  418  pounds  of  butter  fat,  and 
though  the  feed  cost  was  increased  from  $53  to  $83  per  cow, 
the  returns  over  feed  cost  increased  from  $129  per  cow  in  the 
first  year  to  $218  in  the  second. 

CHOICE   OF  PROTEIN   SUPPLEMENTS 

As  the  main  class  of  feeds  that  has  to  be  purchased  on  the 
average  dairy  farm  is  the  group  of  high  protein  supplements, 


248  FEEDING  ECONOMY 

some  consideration  is  necessary  in  their  choice.  The  main 
point  to  which  attention  must  be  paid  in  the  purchase  of  these 
concentrates  is  the  cost  of  the  digestible  protein  present,  as 
this  is  the  constituent  for  which  these  feeds  are  primarily 
purchased. 

The  digestible  carbohydrate  equivalent  in  the  various  con- 
centrates is  practically  of  uniform  value,  pound  for  pound, 
for  feeding  purposes,  no  matter  what  is  the  source  of  the  feed. 
In  calculating  the  cost  of  the  digestible  crude  protein,  a 
uniform  value  of  i  cent  per  pound  can  be  placed  on  the  diges- 
tible carbohydrate  equivalent. 

From  the  cost  of  loo  pounds  of  feed  is  subtracted  the  value 
of  the  digestible  carbohydrate  equivalent,  and  the  difference, 
when  divided  by  the  percentage  of  digestible  crude  protein 
present  and  multiplied  by  too,  gives,  in  dollars  and  cents,  the 
cost  of  IOC  pounds  of  digestible  crude  protein  in  the  given 
feed  at  the  price  stated. 

The  Appendix  Table  IV,  on  the  cost  per  hundred  pounds  of 
digestible  crude  protein  in  some  common  concentrates  at 
various  prices  has  been  prepared  in  this  maimer.  In  comparing 
feeds  in  this  way  a  few  important  factors  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  The  feeds  under  consideration  should  always 
be  compared  on  the  basis  of  the  prices  including  freight  charges 
as  this  frequently  is  an  important  item.  Some  feeds  are  not 
used  as  a  source  of  protein,  but  for  the  furnishing  of  energy- 
providing  materials,  and  so  cannot  be  compared  on  this  basis 
with  the  feeds  of  high  protein  content.  Consequently  it  is  not 
possible  to  compare  such  concentrates  as  corn-and-cob-meal 
and  hominy  feed  with  hnseed-oil  meal  or  cottonseed  meal. 

Granting  that  the  feeds  which  provide  protein  at  least  cost 
should  generally  be  purchased  when  protein  is  wanted,  yet  there 
are  circumstances  under  which  this  rule  must  be  somewhat 
modified.  Where  the  rations  contain  no  succulent  feed  such 
as  silage,  cottonseed  meal  should  not  be  used,  but  linseed-oil 


CHOICE   OF   PROTEIN   SUPPLEMENTS  249 

meal  will  fit  in  admirably  under  those  conditions  and  so 
should  be  used  rather  than  the  cottonseed  meal  even  if  the 
cost  of  protein  is  somewhat  greater.  Then  again,  when  the 
ration  consists  largely  of  corn  silage  and  corn,  it  is  not  the  best 
policy  to  use  corn-gluten  feed  for  the  protein  supplement,  it 
being  better  to  use  feeds  from  some  other  source  than  the  corn 
plant  in  order  to  give  greater  variety  to  the  ration.  With 
these  limitations  in  mind,  however,  it  is  always  well  to  pur- 
chase the  protein  supplements  on  the  basis  of  the  protein  they 
contain. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
DIGESTIVE  DISTURBANCES 

Dairy  cattle,  like  other  forms  of  live  stock,  are  subject  to 
disease;  and  though  the  general  problem  of  derangements  of 
health  belongs  to  the  field  of.  the  veterinarian,  the  man  in 
charge  of  dairy  cattle  should  be  able  to  detect  trouble  when 
it  arises  and  to  call  in  a  veterinary  practitioner  before  it  is  too 
late. 

Digestive  disturbances  are  quite  common  among  dairy 
cattle;  and  as  the  man  in  charge  of  the  stock  can  usually 
control  these  by  his  feeding  methods,  attention  to  a  few  of 
them  may  not  be  out  of  place.  Indigestion  and  similar 
troubles  which  pass  under  the  same  name  in  both  calves  and 
older  animals  have  to  be  treated  differently  with  the  two  classes 
of  stock,  and  will  therefore  be  given  separate  consideration. 

CALVES 

Calves,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  their  development, 
are  subject  to  a  few  common  digestive  troubles.  These  lead 
to  general  unthriftiness  and,  if  not  properly  handled,  to  a 
fairly  high  rate  of  mortality.  These  derangements  are  amen- 
able to  treatment  and  should  be  recognized  by  the  man  in 
charge.  White  scours  will  not  be  considered,  as  it  is  not  of 
digestive  origin,  though  some  of  its  chief  manifestations  are 
in  the  digestive  tract. 

Prevention  is  undoubtedly  the  best  treatment  for  calf 
troubles,    and    with    careful    feeding   and    management   and 

250 


CALVES  251 

reasonable  sanitary  precautions  considerably  less  trouble  is 
experienced  with  the  more  common  digestive  disturbances  of 
calves. 

Constipation. — The  young  calf  requires  the  colostrum,  or 
first  milk,  of  its  dam  to  assist  in  getting  the  intestinal  tract  in 
good  working  order.  If  the  calf  does  not  get  the  colostrum, 
he  may  become  constipated.  Improper  feeding,  such  as  lack 
of  sufficient  roughage,  in  older  calves  may  also  bring  about 
constipation.  One  of  the  safest  treatments  for  constipation 
is  to  administer  castor  oil  in  doses  of  i  to  3  ounces,  depending 
on  the  size  and  age  of  the  calf.  The  young  calf  should  be 
watched  carefully  until  it  is  certain  that  the  bowels  are  in 
working  order. 

Indigestion. — In  the  cases  of  calves,  indigestion  may  be 
due  to  one  or  more  of  a  variety  of  causes.  Among  the  more 
conmion  of  these  are  constipation,  overfeeding,  irregularity 
in  the  time  of  feeding,  carelessness  in  the  amount  and  quality 
as  well  as  in  the  temperature  of  the  milk  fed,  the  feeding  of 
dirty  milk  or  other  feeds  that  are  in  bad  condition,  too  rapid 
changes  in  the  amount  or  nature  of  the  feed,  or  chills  brought 
on  by  draughts  or  by  cold,  damp  floors.  The  cause  of  the 
trouble  should  be  immediately  located  and  remedied,  and  in 
addition  the  feed  should  be  cut  down  and  castor  oil  adminis- 
tered. Where  abnormal  fermentations,  due  to  dirty  milk,  are 
the  cause  of  indigestion,  the  administration  of  limewater 
frequently  aids  in  bringing  relief. 

Bloat. — This  form  of  indigestion  is  generally  due  to  ab- 
normal fermentations  in  the  stomach,  brought  about  by  dirty 
milk,  or  to  the  calves  sucking  each  other  and  thus  drawing 
air  into  their  stomachs.  The  swallowing  of  the  foam  some- 
times found  on  separated  milk  is  also  a  cause,  and  any  of  the 
causes  of  indigestion  may  ultimately  result  in  bloat.  Castor 
oil  should  be  administered  after  the  elimination  of  the  cause, 
and    the   feed   allowance   should   be   reduced.     Sometimes   a 


252  DIGESTIVE   DISTURBANCES 

teaspoonful  of  ground  Jamaica  ginger  given  in  hot  water  will 
be  valuable  in  giving  relief  if  the  bloat  is  severe  enough  to 
cause  colic.  The  ginge^  also  has  a  tonic  effect  on  the  stomach 
and  aids  in  rapid  recovery.  A  drench  of  lo  cubic  centi- 
meters of  conmiercial  formalin  in  half  a  pint  of  water  is  also 
a  convenient  remedy  for  bloat. 

Common  Scours. — Though  easily  prevented  by  proper  care 
and  feeding,  common  scours  are  all  too  prevalent  among  dairy 
calves.  Any  of  the  causes  given  for  the  digestive  disturbances 
already  mentioned  may  ultimately  result  in  scours,  and 
another  cause  is  the  feeding  to  young  calves  of  milk  that  is  too 
rich  in  butter  fat.  When  calves  are  comfortably  housed  and 
properly  fed  and  cared  for,  there  should  be  Httle  trouble  from 
common  scours. 

As  ordinary  scours  is  a  simple  digestive  derangement,  the 
treatment  given  should  be  such  as  will  bring  the  digestion  back 
to  normal.  Remove  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  and  at  the  same 
time  cut  the  milk  ration  down  by  at  least  one-half.  This 
relieves  the  digestive  system,  and  it  can  be  assisted  in  freeing 
itself  of  obnoxious  materials  by  the  administration  of  i  to  3 
ounces  of  castor  oil. 

Treating  with  formalin  also  gives  beneficial  results.  A 
stock  solution  of  i  part  of  commercial  fonnalin  to  3 1  parts  of 
water  is  made,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  this  mixture  is  added  to 
each  pound  of  milk  fed.  The  formalin  acts  as  a  disinfectant, 
destroying  the  putrefactive  organisms  which  induce  the 
scours.  Another  satisfactory  method  of  control  is  to  mix  50 
grains  of  salol,  if  drams  of  bismuth  subnitrate,  and  2  drams 
of  sodium  bicarbonate,  and  make  into  five  powders.  One  of 
the  powders  is  given  in  milk  every  six  hours. 

When  the  trouble  is  under  control,  the  calf  should  be 
brought  slowly  back  on  to  full  feed.  Where  the  calf  is  very 
weak  and  will  not  drink,  it  can  be  kept  nourished  by  the 
occasional  administration  of  an  egg.     The  shell  of  the  egg  is 


MATURI-;   STOCK  253 

cracked,  and  the  egg,  shell  and  all,  put  well  back  in  the  calf's 
mouth.  If  the  calf's  mouth  is  kept  closed  he  will  break  and 
swallow  the  egg. 

MATURE   STOCK 

The  number  of  digestive  disturbances  of  mature  stock  which 
are  commonly  met  with  are  quite  limited.  The  main  problem 
is  keeping  the  cows  on  feed.  There  are  but  three  digestive 
troubles  which  need  be  mentioned. 

Indigestion. — There  are  many  causes  which  lead  to  in- 
digestion, but  the  more  common  contributory  causes  are  over- 
feeding, spoiled  feed,  and  sudden  changes  in  the  ration. 
When  indigestion  occurs  it  will  be  noted  that  the  cow  is  dull 
and  lacks  appetite,  while  the  feces  are  very  dry  and  small  in 
amount  or  almost  entirely  absent.  In  cases,  however,  where 
the  causal  factor  is  some  irritant  substance,  purging  may 
occur. 

Treatment  consists  of  cutting  down  the  ration  and  feeding 
bran  mashes  in  place  of  grain.  Sometimes  this  is  all  that  is 
necessary,  but  frequently  the  administration  of  purgatives  is 
essential.  Useful  j)urgatives,  to  be  given  as  drenches,  are  the 
following:  i  to  t|  pounds  of  Epsom  salts  in  2  quarts  of  warm 
water;  i  pound  of  Epsom  salts  and  i  pound  of  molasses  in 
2  quarts  of  warm  water;  or  i  to  i|  quarts  of  raw  linseed  oil. 
The  last  is  the  mildest  in  action.  Where  Epsom  salts  are 
given,  it  is  well  to  try  to  induce  the  cow  to  drink  considerable 
quantities  of  slightly  warmed  water.  This  hastens  the  action 
of  the  purgative.  When  the  action  of  the  purgative  is  appar- 
ent and  the  appetite  of  the  cow  is  returning,  she  should  be 
brought  back  to  full  feed  slowly,  the  grain  ration  being  limited 
for  a  time  and  bran  mashes  fed. 

Blodt. — The  accumulation  in  the  rumen  of  gas  liberated 
through  the  influence  of  bacterial  action  on  soluble  food  con- 
stituents, especially  carbohydrates,  leads  to  bloat.     It  occurs 


254  DIGESTIVE   DISTURBANCES 

most  frequently  when  animals  are  pastured  on  clover,  alfalfa 
or  other  legumes,  and  is  especially  prevalent  when  these  crops 
are  young  and  succulent.  Other  young  crops  will  also  bring 
about  this  condition.  Bloat  from  this  cause  can  be  prevented 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  having  the  animals  fairly  well 
filled  before  they  are  turned  out  to  pasture,  and  the  pasture 
should  not  be  wet  when  the  animals  go  on.  A  good  feed  of  hay 
before  the  animals  are  turned  out  is  quite  satisfactory  as  a 
preventive  measure  in  many  cases;  but  where  there  is  danger  of 
bloat  on  pasture  the  animals  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
out  only  a  short  time  daily  for  the  first  few  days.  As  they 
become  accustomed  to  it  the  length  of  time  on  pasture  can  be 
gradually  increased. 

When  soiling  is  being  fed  in  the  barn,  bloat  is  rare;  but  it 
does  occasionally  occur  under  those  conditions.  Overfeeding 
on  any  feed,  and  digestive  disturbances  accompanied  by 
excessive  fermentation  will  also  result  in  bloat. 

There  is  a  characteristic  swelling  of  the  left  flank  in  the 
case  of  bloat,  and  this  may  extend  up  to  the  back  bone;  in 
some  cases  the  distended  rumen  may  appear  higher  than  the 
level  of  the  back.  The  animal  is  restless  and  apparently  ui 
distress.  In  advanced  cases  breathing  is  labored  and  the 
animal  may  stagger  and  fall.  Death  may  occur  from  suffoca- 
tion due  to  the  pressure  of  the  rumen  on  the  diaphragm  inter- 
fering with  respiration.  Rupture  of  the  stomach  may  also 
occur. 

There  are  many  methods  of  treatment  pursued  in  cases  of 
bloat,  or  tympanitis,  and  a  few  of  the  more  conmion  ones  are 
as  follows: 

1 .  The  bloated  animal  is  kept  moving.  This  leads  to  move- 
ment of  the  rumen  and  aids  in  the  liberation  of  gas.  In  slight 
attacks  this  is  occasionally  all  the  treatment  that  is  necessary. 

2.  A  stick — a  piece  of  a  fork  handle  is  satisfactory — is  put 
in  the  mouth  of  the  animal,  as  is  a  bit,  and  the  ends  of  it  are 


MATURE   STOCK  255 

tied  to  the  horns  of  the  animal  or  to  a  halter.  The  animal 
chews  on  the  stick,  and  in  the  process  gas  is  hberated  and  the 
t>Tnpanitis  relieved.  This  process  is  aided  by  standing  the 
animal  with  the  fore  feet  at  a  higher  level  than  the  hind  ones. 

3.  The  introduction  of  a  rubber  tube  through  the  mouth  to 
the  stomach  sometimes  gives  relief.  This,  however,  is  occa- 
sionally difficult  to  do  and  it  is  not  satisfactory  in  all  cases. 

4.  A  number  of  drenches  are  recommended  for  bloat.  Two 
that  are  satisfactory  and  easily  prepared  are:  3  ounces  of 
turpentine  in  i  pint  of  raw  Unseed  oil;  half  an  ounce  of 
formalin  in  i  quart  of  water.  Either  of  these  will  bring 
relief  fairly  readily,  but  they  will  be  aided  in  their  action  by 
tying  a  stick  in  the  mouth  of  the  animal. 

When  the  bloating  has  subsided  it  is  frequently  advisable  to 
give  the  animal  a  purgative  to  clean  out  the  digestive  tract  and 
prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  trouble.  A  suitable  drench  is  i 
pound  of  Epsom  salts  and  i§  ounces  of  ground  Jamaica  ginger 
in  2  quarts  of  warm  water.  The  Epsom  salts  remove  the 
material  that  has  been  causing  trouble  and  the  ginger  has  a 
tonic  effect. 

5.  When  the  bloat  is  very  severe  and  there  is  danger  of  the 
animal  collapsing  before  any  of  the  methods  mentioned  could 
be  effective,  piercing  with  a  trocar  and  canula  must  be  resorted 
to.  The  point  at  which  the  trocar  should  be  inserted  is 
equidistant  between  the  last  rib,  the  hip  bone  and  the  lumbar 
vertebrae.  The  trocar  should  be  pushed  downward,  inward 
and  forward,  and  as  it  is  withdrawn  the  canula  should  be  left 
in  place  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape  as  it  forms.  When  the  gas 
ceases  to  form  the  canula  may  be  withdrawn,  but  the  animal 
must  be  watched  to  see  that  the  use  of  the  trocar  is  not  again 
necessary.  It  is  usually  best  to  cork  the  canula  at  intervals, 
as  the  formation  of  gas  can  be  easily  detected  when  the  cork 
is  withdrawn.  The  trocar  and  canula  should  be  disinfected 
before  use. 


256  DKiESTIVK    DISTURBANCES 

The  treatment  of  bloat  is  simple;  but  oeeasionally  animals 
will  be  found  which  bloat  habitually  with  little  or  no  provoca- 
tion.    Such  individuals  should  be  disposed  of. 

Impaction. — The  rumen  of  the  cow  has  a  large  capacity, 
but  at  times  when  it  is  not  functioning  properly  a  large  amount 
of  feed  may  become  lodged  there  and  cause  distention.  This 
condition,  known  as  impaction,  is  easily  distinguished  from 
bloat.  In  the  case  of  bloat,  if  the  enlargement  be  pressed  in, 
it  will  at  once  return  to  its  original  position  when  released; 
but  in  the  case  of  impaction  some  httle  time  will  be  required 
for  this  to  take  place. 

Impaction  is  largely  induced  by  overfeeding,  cspecialh'  of 
dry  feeds  such  as  hays  and  grains.  The  first  step  in  treatment 
is  consequently  to  stop  feeding.  Then  when  the  excess  of 
material  in  the  rumen  has  started  to  pass  on  a  purgativ^e  should 
be  given.  Any  of  those  mentioned  are  good,  and  it  is  well 
also  to  give  ginger.  The  return  to  full  feed  should  be  gradual. 
This  simple  treatment  is  generally  effective,  but  in  some  cases 
veterinary  assistance  is  needed. 


PART  VI 
APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  I 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS   IN   FEEDS 

The  content  of  digestible  nutrients  given  here  for  the 
various  feeds  is  taken  by  special  permission  from  the  extensive 
data  in  Appendix  Table  III  of  the  seventeenth  edition  of 
"  Feeds  and  Feeding  "  by  W.  A.  Henry  and  F.  B.  Morrison. 
Only  feeds  that  are  of  special  interest  in  the  feeding  of  dairy 
cattle  and  a  few  that  are  of  note  on  some  other  accounts  are 
included.  The  method  of  using  this  table  is  outlined  in 
Chapter  VIII. 


259 


200 


APPENDIX  .1 


APPENDIX  TABLE  I 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  Feeds 


Feed 


Succulent  Roughages 
Silage: 

Corn,  mature 

Corn,  immature 

Corn  stover 

Corn  cannery  refuse .  .  .  . 

Sorghum 

Alfalfa 

Clover 

Soybean 

Corn  and  Soybean 

Green  Forage: 

Alfalfa 

Clover,  red 

Clover,  Alsike 

Sweet  clover 

Peas 

Cowpeas 

Soybeans 

Corn  fodder 

Sweet-corn  stover 

Oats 

Rye 

Millet,  common 

Sorghum 

Oats  and  peas 

Bluegrass 

Roots,  Tubers,  etc. 

Sugar  beets 

Mangels 

Turnips 

Rutabagas 


Total 
Dry 

Matter, 

Per  Cent 

26.3 

21 .0 

19.6 

16.7 

22.8 

24.6 

27.8 

27.1 

24.7 

25-3 

26.2 

24-3 

24.4 

16.6 

16.3 

23.6 

21 .9 

21.5 

26. 1 

21.3 

27.6 

24.9 

22.6 

31-6 

16.4 

0-4 

Q-5 

10.0 

Digestible  Nutrients 


Crude 

Carbo- 

Fat, 

Protein, 

hydrate, 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

I.I 

I5-0 

0.7 

I.O 

II. 4 

0.4 

0.5 

9.9 

0.4 

0. 1 

4-9 

0.1 

0.6 

II. 6 

o-S 

1 .2 

7.8 

0.6 

1-3 

Q-5 

0-5 

2.6 

II  .0 

0.7 

1.6 

13.8 

0.8 

3-3 

10.4 

0.4 

2.7 

13.0 

0.6 

2.7 

II. 8 

0.4 

3-3 

10.3 

0-3 

2.9 

71 

°-3 

2-3 

8.0 

0.3 

3-2 

10.  2 

0-5 

1 .0 

12.8 

0.4 

1.0 

131 

03 

2.3 

II. 8 

0.8 

2.1 

12.2 

0.5 

1.9 

14.8 

0.6 

0.7 

14. 1 

0.6 

2.4 

10.6 

0.6 

2.3 

14.8 

0.6 

1 . 2 

12.6 

0.1 

0.8 

6.4 

0.1 

1 .0 

6.0 

0.  2 

1.0 

7-7 

03 

DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   IN   FEED 
APPENDIX  TABLE  I— Continued 


261 


Feed 


Total 
Dry 

Matter, 

Per  Cent 


Digestible  Nutrients 


Crude 
Protein 
Per  Cent 


Carbo- 
hydrate, 
Per  Cent 


Fat, 
Per  Cent 


Succulent  Roughages 

Continued 

Roots,  Tubers,  etc. — Continued 

Beet  pulp 

Potatoes 

Pumplcins 

Dry  Roughages 

Alfalfa.-. 

Clover,  red 

Clover,  Alsike 

Sweet  clover 

Pea 

Cowpea 

Soybean 

Corn  fodder 

Corn  stover 

Oat  straw 

Timothy 

Millet,  common 

Sudan  grass 

Sorghum  fodder 

Oat  and  pea 

Concentrates 

Corn,  shelled 

Corn  meal 

Corn-and-cob  meal 

Hominy  feed 

Germ-oil  meal 

Corn  bran 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Corn  distillers'  grains 

Ground  oats 


91.8 
21.2 
8.3 


10.6 
7.6 
7-9 

10. q 


8.3 


7-5 

6.9 

6.1 

7.0 

16.5 

5.8 

30.2 

21.6 

22.4 

Q  4 


65.2 
15.8 

4-5 


I.O 

42 

30 

42 

so 

46 

3-3 

53 

67 

8 

4 

69 

0 

3 

63 

7 

3 

61 

2 

7 

42 

6 

10 

56 

9 

4 

43 

9 

4 

51 

9 

3 

40 

4 

II 

51 

4 

4 

0.8 


0.9 

1.8 
1 .1 
0.7 
1.9 
1 .0 
1.2 
1-5 


1.8 
0.9 


262 


APPENDIX   I 
APPENDIX  TABLE  I— Continued 


Feed 


Concentrates — Continued 

Wheat 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings 

Flour- wheat  middlings 

Red  Dog  flour 

Barley 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains 

Rye 

Rye  distillers'  grains 

Rice 

Kafir 

Milo 

Peas 

Cowpeas 

Soybeans 

Soybean  meal 

Peanut  meal 

Peanut  feed 

Cottonseed  meal 

Cold-pressed  cottonseed  cake 

Flax  seed 

Linseed  meal,  O.  P 

Linseed  meal,  N.  P 

Coconut  meal 

Palmnut  meal 

Buckwheat 

Molasses,  cane 

Dairy  Products 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 


Total 
Dr>' 

Matter, 

Per  Cent 


89 


Digestible  Nutrients 


Crude 
Protein, 
Per  Cent 


Carbo- 
hydrate, 
Per  Cent 


9.2 
12.5 
13-4 
15-7 
14.8 

9.0 
20.3 

21-5 

9.9 
13.6 
4-7 
9.0 
8.7 
19.0 
19.4 
30-7 
38.1 
42.8 
20.2 
37  o 
21 . 1 
20.6 
30.2 
31-7 


3-3 
3.6 
3-4 
0.8 


Fat, 
Per  Cent 


64.6 
65.8 
66.2 
55-8 
54-5 
22.8 
33-9 
20.4 
16.0 
21.8 
33-2 
17.0 
32.6 

37-9 
42  .0 
45-8 
49-7 
58.2 


4-9 
51 

4-9 

4-7 


1-5 
30 
4-3 
4-3 
3-5 
1.6 

1-3 
6.1 
1 .2 
6.6 
1-7 

2-3 

2.2 
0.6 


0.1 
0-3 


Total, 
Per  Cent 


APPENDIX    II 
A  FEEDING   STANDARD   FOR  DAIRY  COWS 

All  present-day  feeding  standards  are  moditications  of  the 
original  Wolff-Lehmann  Standard.  The  one  presented  here 
has  been  prepared  by  Morrison  and  is  taken  by  express  per- 
mission from  the  tables  in  the  eighteenth  edition  of  ' 'Feeds 
and  Feeding,"  by  Henry  and  Morrison. 

It  has  one  great  advantage  in  that  only  two  units  are  used, 
digestible  crude  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients.  In 
addition,  a  minimum  and  maximum  is  given  in  each  case. 
The  maxima  are  for  use  with  high  producing  cows  and  the 
minima  for  low  producers.  A  variation  in  the  relative 
amounts  of  protein  and  total  nutrients  is  also  provided. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  general,  protein  is  more  expen- 
sive than  other  nutrients  and  so  should  not  be  fed  to  excess, 
while  at  other  times  feeds  of  high  protein  content  are  rela- 
tively low  in  price  and  so  can  be  fed  in  greater  quantities. 
In  certain  sections  also,  especially  in  the  south  and  in  the  west- 
ern alfalfa  regions,  the  feeds  of  relatively  high  protein  content 
are  generally  cheap.  The  method  of  using  this  standard  is 
explained  in  Chapter  VIII. 


263 


204 


[j  tr/lJ^'tii 


APPENDIX   II 


APPENDIX  TAI5LE  II 
A  Feedinc.  Standaku  for  Dairy  Cows 


Dif.n-stible 

Total 

Crude 

Dik'estible 

Protein, 

Nutrients, 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Dairy  Cows: 

For  maintenance  of  looo-lb.  cow 

0 .  7C0 

7.925 

To  allowance  for  maintenance  add : 

4 

For  each  pound  of  2 . 5  per  cent  milk 

0.045-0.053 

0.  230-0. 256 

For  each  pound  of  3 

0  per  cent  milk 

0.047-0.057 

0.257-0.286 

For  each  pound  of  3 

5  per  cent  milk 

0.049-0.061 

0.284-0.316 

For  each  pound  of  4 

0  per  cent  milk 

0.054-0.065 

O.311-O.346 

For  each  pound  of  4 

5  per  cent  milk 

0. 057-0. o6q 

0.338-0.376 

For  each  pound  of  5 

0  per  cent  milk 

0.060-0.073 

0.362-0.402 

For  each  pound  of  5 

5  per  cent  milk 

0.064-0.077 

0.385-0.428 

For  each  pound  of  6 

0  per  cent  milk 

0.067-0.081 

0.409-0.454 

For  each  pound  of  6 

5  per  cent  milk 

0.072-0.085 

0.434-0.482 

For  each  pound  of  7 

0  per  cent  milk 

0.0 74-0. o8q 

0.454-0.505 

<^  0   ^  APPENDIX  III 

>^.  0  i' 

-         .     '^  MINERAL  ELEMENTS   IN   FEEDS 

The  mineral  or  ash  content  of  feeds  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  their  value,  especially  for  the  growth  of  bone  and  for 
milk  production.  Little  work  on  this  problem  has  really  been 
accomplished.  The  figures  in  the  accompanying  table  are 
selected  from  "  Mineral  and  Organic  Analyses  of  Foods," 
published  as  Bulletin  255  of  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  by  E.  B.  Forbes  and  others  in  1913. 

Some  of  the  important  facts  to  note  are  the  amount  of  total 
ash,  and  the  amounts  of  calcium  and  phosphorus  which  are 
used  in  bone-building.  The  excess  of  base  and  the  excess  of 
acid  are  also  worthy  of  attention.  All  other  data  are  given 
on  the  percentage  basis;  but  the  excess  of  base  is  expressed  in 
the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  normal  acid  solution  that 
is  requirefl  to  neutralize  the  excess  base  in  100  grams  of  the 
dried  material.  The  excess  acid  is  likewise  expressed  in  terms 
of  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  normal  solution  of 
alkali  required  to  neutralize  the  excess  acid  in  100  grams  of 
dried  material. 

It  may  be  noted  that  all  of  the  concentrates  studied,  with 
the  exception  of  wheat  bran,  linseed-oil  meal  and  the  legumes, 
contain  an  excess  of  acid,  while  all  of  the  roughages  listed  are 
basic  in  character. 


265 


266 


APPENDIX   III 


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APPENDIX  IV 

RELATIVE    ECONOMY    OF    PROTEIN    SUPPLEMENTS 

A  METHOD  of  determining  the  relative  cost  of  loo  pounds 
of  protein  in  the  various  protein  supplements  has  been  out- 
lined in  Chapter  XXIX.  For  convenient  reference  the  pro- 
tein costs  have  been  worked  out  for  a  number  of  concentrates 
and  are  given  in  the  table  here.  When  this  table  is  used,  its 
limitations,  which  have  already  been  mentioned,  should  be 
remembered. 


267 


268 


APPENDIX  IV 


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INDEX 


Abomasum,  38,  39,  41,  42 

— ,  digestion  in,  41 

Absorption,  36,  44,  45 

Accessories,  food,  34 

Acids,  amino,  S3,  34,  43.  44,  62,  93 

— ,  essential,  62 

fatty,  S3,  43,  44 

in  silage,  loi 

nucleic,  44 
Age,  influence  on  balance  of   nutri- 
ents, 83 

— , ■  live  weight,  1 74 

— , response  to  feeding,  18 

Albumin,  34 
Alfalfa,  55"^ 

—  hay,  129      y/ 

—  meal,  130  "^ 

—  molasses  feeds,  164 

—  pasture,  124 

—  silage,  log 

—  soiling,  III 
Allowance  of  grain,  172 

roughage,  172 

Alsilvc  clover,  hay,  131 
-soiling,  113 

Amber  cane  and  cowpcas  for  soiling, 
120 

soybeans  for  soiling,  1 20 

silage,  108 

soiling,  117 

Amino-acids,  33,  34,  43,  44,  62,  93 
— ,  essential,  62 
Amylase,  43 

Anti-neuritic  vitaminc,  55 
Anti-scorbutic  vitaminc,  56 


Apple  pomace  silage,  109 

Arginine,  62 

Arterial  blood,  44 

Ash,  27,  28,  31,  35,  58 

— •,  functions  of,  58 

— •  in  corn,  137,  141 

— ,  influence  on  production,  O3 

— ■  requirements,  82. 

Asparagin,  34 

Asparagus,  3^ 


Bacteria  in  digestion,  40,  41 

Balance  of  nutrients,  8i 

— ■,  as  influenced  by  age,  83 
— ■  — ■  — •  condition,  84 

■  individuality,  87 

quality  of  milk,  85 

— •  ■ size,  83 

— • stage  of  lactation,  86 

•  —  yield  of  milk,  85 

Barley,  145 

—  and  peas  for  soiling,  1 20 

—  bran,  146 

— ■  brewers'  grains,  146 
— -,  grinding  of,  240 
— ■  malt  sprouts,  146 
— ,  rolling  of,  240 
— •  shorts,  146 

—  straw,  133 
— ■  soiling,  118 
Beans,  55,  151 
Beets,  55,  56 

— ,  molasses,  161 
— ,  pulp,  125,  241 
— ,  —  silage,  109 


2b9 


270 


INDEX 


Beets,  sugar,  55,  124 

— ,  top  silage,  109 

Beri-beri,  55 

Bile,  43,  45 

Birth  weights  of  calves,  215 

Bladder,  gall,  43 

Bloat,  113,  124 

—  in  calves,  251 

— ■  —  mature  stock,  253 

Blood,  arterial,  44 

— -,  dried,  for  calves,  224 

— ■  meal,  163 

— ,  venous,  44 

Bluegrass  pasture,  122 

Bone,  28 

Bran,  barley,  146 

— ,  buckwheat,  160 

— ;  corn,  141 

— •,  mash,  93,  241 

— ,  oat,  143 

— ,  peanut,  152 

— ,  rice,  148 

— ,  rye,  147 

— ,  wheat,  56,  89,  130,  144 

Breeding,  influence  on  production. 

Brewers'  grains,  146 

Buckwheat,  160 

— ■  bran,  160 

— ■  hulls,  160 

— ■  middlings,  160 

—  straw,  134 
Bulk,  94 

— ■,  influence  on  digestion,  94 

Butterfat,  fat-soluble  A  in,  55 

Buttermilk,  162 

— ■,  dried,  162 

— ,  — •,  for  calves,  217 

— ■  for  calves,  216 


Cabbage,  55,  56,  98 
Caecum,  42 
Calcium,  28,  29,  35 
Calf  feeding,  212 
;  buttermilk,  216 


Calf  feeding,  chalk,  224 

•,  charcoal,  224 

■,  condiments,  224 

—  — ,  dairy  by-products,  216 

—  — ,  digestive  disturbances,  250 
,  dried  blood,  224 

—  ^,  dried  buttermilk,  217 

,  dried  skim  milk,  217 

,  early  treatment,  212 

,  grain,  218 

,  — ,  grinding,  219 

,  — ■  mixtures,  219 

•,  — ■,  self-feeding,  219 

•,  hand-feeding,  214 

hay,  221 

— ,  necessity  of,  221 

milk,  skim,  216 

— ,  substitutes,  217 

— ,  supplements,  217 

— •,  whole,  215 

— ,  ^,  inefficiency  of,  221 

pasture,  223 

rock  phosphate,  ground,  224 

roots,  223 

salt,  224 

silage,  223 

teaching  to  drink,  213 

water,  224 

whey,  216 
Calves,  birth  weights,  215 
— ,  necessity  of  bulk,  221 
—,  necessity  of  vitamines,  54 
Cane  molasses,  161 
Capillaries,  44,  45 
Carbohydrates,  32,  33,  52 
— ■,  digestion  of,  40 
^,  equivalent,  digestible,  49 
— ,  functions  of,  52 
— ,  influence  on  production,  60 
Carbon,  25,  32,  5^ 
Carotin,  35,  56 
Carotinoids,  35,  56 
Carrots,  35,  55,  56 
Caseinogen,  34 
— ,  digestion  of,  42 


INDEX 


271 


Cellulose  digestion,  40 
Cereals,  grains,  136 
— ,  straws,  133 
— ,  water-soluble  B  in,  55 
— ,  water-soluble  C  in,  56 
Chalk,  28 

—  for  calves,  224 
Charcoal  for  calves,  224 
Chlorine,  2q,  35 
Chlorophyll,  35,  55 
Chopping  feed,  241 
Chyme,  43,  44 
Clippings,  oat,  143 
Clover,  55 

—  hay,  130 

,  Alsike,  131 

,  crimson,  131 

,  mammoth  red,  131 

■,  red,  131 

,  sweet,  131 

—  pasture,  124 

—  silage,  109 

—  soiling,  III 

•,  Alsike,  113 

•,  crimson,  113 

,  mammoth  red,  113 

,  red.  III 

■,  sweet,  113 

Coconut  meal,  159 

Coefficient  of  digestibility,  49 

Cold-pressed  cottonseed  cake,  156 

Colon,  42 

Common  scours,  252 

Concentrates,  methods  of  feeding, 
238,  239 

— ,  mixed,  164 

Condiments  for  calves,  224 

Condition,  47 

— ,  influence  on  balance  of  nutri- 
ents, 84 

Constipation,  251 

Cooking  feed,  242 

Com,  55.  136 

—  and-cob  meal,  95,  140 
cowpeas  for  silage,  no 


Corn  and  cowpeas  for  soiling,  i : 

—  —  soybeans  for  silage,  1 10 
— ■ soiling,  1 20 

—  ash,  137 

—  bran,  141 
— •  cobs,  139. 

— ;  cracked,  90,  139 
— ,  dent,  136 

—  distillers'  grains,  142 
—,  car,  139 

—,  flint,  136 

—  fodder,  133 

— •  germ-oil  meal,  141 

—  gluten  feed,  142 
meal,  141 

— ,  grinding,  240 

—  hominy  feed,  140 

—  meal,  139 

—  oil,  33 

— ■,  pentosans  in  cobs,  139 

—  pigments,  137 

—  preparations,  cost  of,  241 
— ■  proteins,  137 

— ,  shelled,  90,  139 
— ■  shrinkage,  138 

—  silage,  92,  loi 

,  acids  in,  loi 

■,  — •  — ■,  acetic,  loi 

—  — ■,  — ■  — •,  lactic,  loi 
— ■  — •  feeding,  100 

,  rate  of,  107 

— •  — ■  — -,  summer,  107 
— ■  — ■  ^,  winter,  106 

•  flavor  in  milk,  107 

■  for  conservation,  103 

from  cannery  refuse,  105 

fodder,  104 

■  —  stover,  104 

— •  ^,  frosted,  103 

—  — ,  grain  in,  102 

-,  moldy,  102 

,  packing,  105 

,  rotting,  105 

—  — ,  value  of,  104,  115 
— ,  soft,  138 


272 


IXDKX 


Corn  soiling,  115 
— ■  — ,  sweet,  lis 

—  solubles,  141 
— •  stover,  133 
— ,  sweet,  136 

—  vitamines,  137 
— ,  white  55,  137 
— ,  yellow,  55,  137 
Cost  of  protein,  171 
Cottonseed,  153,  154 

— ,  cold-pressed  cake,  156 

—  feed,  156 

— ,  gossypol,  153 

—  hulls,  95,  155  \/ 

—  meal,  89,  97,  155 

—  poisoning,  153 

Cow,  feeding  of,  after  parturition,  201 

— , ,  before  parturition,  201 

— , ,  dry,  200 

— ,  preparing  for  parturition,  200 
Cowpeas,  151 

—  hay, 131 

—  soiling,  114 
Cracked  corn,  139 
Crimson  clover  hay,  131 

soihng,  113 

Crude  fiber,  32,  52 

,  functions  of,  52 

,  protein,  34 

Cud,  37 

Cystine,  62 


Deficiency  diseases,  54 

Dent  corn,  136 

Dextrin,  38 

Dextrose,  38 

Digestibility,  49 

— ,  coefficient  of,  49 

— ,  influence  of  bulk  on,  94 

Digestible    carbohydrate    equi\alent, 

49 
Digestible  nutrients,  49,  50 
Digestion,  36 
—  coefficient,  49 


Digestion,  effect  of  feeds  on,  96 
— , palatability  on,  89      j 

—  in  abomasum.  41 

—  -  intestine,  42 
large  intestine,  43 

-    ~  mouth,  37 
omasum,  41 

—  —  reticulum,  40 
rumen,  40 

—  —  small  intestine,  42 

—  —  stomach,  38 
— ,  true,  41 

Digestive  disturbances,  250 

,  bloat,  in  calves,  251 

■,  —  mature  stock,  253 

—  — ,  common  scours,  252 

—  --,  constipation,  231 
,  impaction,  256 

,  indigestion,  in  calves,  250 

^  — ■,—.,  —  mature  stock,  253 
Distillers'  grains,  corn,  142 

,  rye,  147 

Dried  blood,  224 

—  iiuttermilk,  162 

—  milk,  162 

— ■  skim  milk,  162 
Dry  matter,  31 

,  inorganic,  31,  35 

,  organic,  31 

—  stock,  feeding,  bulls,  227 

—  —,  — ■,  — ,  silage  for,  228 

—  — ,  — ,  cows,  200 
^  — ■,  — ,  heifers,  225 
Duodenum,  42,  43 
t^urra,  148 

Dust,  oat,  143 

E 
Ear  corn,  139 
Economy  of  feeding,  171,  243 

—  —  — ,  choice  of  protein  supple- 

ments, 247 

•  — ,  individual  feeding.  243 

,  Uberal  feeding,  245 

— ,  protein  supply,  247 
,  use  of  home-grown  feeds,  245 


INI 


EX 


275 


Energy,  50 
— ,  gross,  so 
— ,  heat,  50 

—  losses,  50,  51 

— ,  metabolizable,  57 
— ,  net,  51 

—  values,  50 
Enterokinasc,  43,  44 
Enzymes,  38,  40,  41,  42,  43,  44,  45 
— ,  amylase,  43 

— ,  erepsing,  44 

— ,  gastric  lipase,  41,  42 

— ,  invcrtasc,  44 

— ,  inverting,  44 

— ,  lactase,  44 

— ,  lipase,  31,  42,  43 

— ,  maltasc,  38,  44 

— ,  nuclease,  44 

— ,  pepsin,  41,  42,  43 

— ,  ptyalin,  38 

— ,  rennin,  41,  42 

— ,  secretin^  43,  44 

— ,  steapsin,  43 

— ,  trypsin,  43 

Equivalent,  digestible  carboh\  dratc, 

Erepsin,  44 

Ether  extract,  ^s 

Extract,  nitrogen-free,  32,  33,  52 

— , ,  functions  of,  52 

— ,  ether,  35 

F 
Faeces,  45 
Fat,  32,  33,  44,  53 
— ,  crude,  33 

—  digestion,  42,  44 
— ,  functions  of,  53 

--,  influence  on  production,  61 

— -,  — ■  —  quality  of  milk,  (n 

— ,  percentage,  high,  feeding  for,  2 

—  soluble  A,  34,  55 

,  functions  of,  55 

,  sources  of,  55 

— ,  true,  33 
Fattening,  47 

Fatty  acids,  33,  42,  43,  44 


Linseed  oil,  33 
meal,  89,  157 

,  new  process,  158 

,  old-process,  158 

— ,  test  for,  158 
pase,  41,  42 

— lochrome,  56 

— ?r,  43 

— ,  weight,  influence  of  age  on,  174 

- ,  ph,  44 

— ,  phatics,  44 

—,   tG   52 

—  uni 

I'ccdin;  M 

— ,  influm,  28,  35 
— , ice,  46 

—  methoS,  42,  43,  44 

,  con,  44 

,  ordts,  146,  241 

-,  regufd  clover,  for  hay,  131 

—  — ,  roughoiling,  113 

—  standards  24 

based  oi 

eni24i 

gros8 

tota, 

,  criticisms,  ', 

,  development 

Feterita,  148 

—  fodder,  134 

—  soiling,  118 

—  stover,  134 
Fetus,  growth  of,  48 
Fiber,  crude,  32,  52 
— ,  functions  of,  52 
Fillers,  167 

Fishery  by-products,  163 

,  fish  meal,  163 

,  whale  meal,  164 

Flaxseed,  157 

— ,  linseed-oil  meal,  157 

^, ,  new  process,  158 

— , ,  old  process,  158 

— , ,  test  for,  158 


272 


INI 


LX 


Corn  soiling,  115 
,  sweet,  115 

—  solubles,  141 

—  stover,  133 
— ■,  sweet,  136 

—  \-itamines,  137 
— ,  white  55,  137 
— ,  yellow,  55,  137 
Cost  of  protein,  171 
Cottonseed,  153,  154 

— ,  cold-pressed  cake,  156 

—  feed,  156 

— ,  gossypol,  153 

—  hulls,  95,  1 55  /^/ 

—  meal,  89,  97,  155 

—  poisoning,  153 

Cow,  feeding  of,  after  partui 

— , ,  before  parturitio' 

— ,  —  — ,  dry,  200 

— ,  preparing  for  parturitio 

Cowpeas,  151 

—  hay, 131 

—  soiling.  114 
Cracked  corn,  139 
Crimson  clover  hay,  i 

soiling,  1 13 

Crude  fiber,  32,  52 

,  functions  of 

,  protein,  34 

Cud,  37  -4 

Cystine,  62 

owance,  172 

DeP      ^^^''  ^46 

r  distillers',  corn,  142 

-,  — ,  rye,  147 

—  for  calves,  218,  219 
— ,  grinding,  90,  240 
— ,  rolling,  240 

— ,  whole,  90 
Grass,  55,  56 

—  silage,  109 

—  soiling,  118 

,  brome,  118 

,  orchard,  1x9 


Grass  soiling,  red-top,  118 

,  timothy,  118 

Grinding  grains,  90,  240 
Gross  energy,  50 
Ground  oats,  143 
Growth,  47 

—  of  fetus,  48 
Gullet,  38 

H 

Hay,  32,  56 

—  for  calves,  221 

— ,  leguminous,  92,  95,  128 

— ,  — ,  alfalfa,  129 

— ,  — ,  clover,  130 

— ,  — ,  — ,  Alsike,  131 

— .  — ,  — ,  crimson,  131 

— ,  — ,  — ,  mammoth  red,  131 

—  — ,  — J  red,  131 
— ,  — ,  — ,  sweet,  131 
— ,  — ,  cowpea,  131 
—,  — ,  pea,  131 

— ,  — ,  soybean,  132 

— ,  mixed,  135 

— ,  —  oat  and  pea,  135 

— ,  non-leguminous,  132 

— ■;  — ,  millet,  134 

— ,  — ,  Sudan  grass,  133 

— ,  — ,  timothy,  131 

Heat,  50 

Histidine,  62 

Hominy  feed,  140 

Honeycomb,  40 

Hulls,  buckwheat,  160 

— ,  cottonseed,  155 

— ,  oat,  143 

— ,  rice,  148 

Hydrochloric  acid,  29,  41,  42,  43 

-in  gastric  juice,  41 

Hydrogen,  26,  32,  ss 


Ilcocaecal  valve,  45 
Ileum,  42 
Impaction,  256 


INDEX 


275 


Indigestion  in  calves,  251 
—  — ■  mature  stock,  252 
Individual  feeding,  19,  243 
Individuality,    influence    on    balance 

of  nutrients,  86 

— , production,  14 

Influence    of    age    on    response    to 

feeding,  18 

breeding  on  production,  i 

individuality     on     production , 

14,  19 

liberal  feeding  on  production,  15 

"  nicking  "  on  production,  1 2 

selection  on  production,  7 

Inorganic  dry  matter,  31,  35 

Intestine,  42 

— ,  digestion  in,  42 

— ,  large,  42,  45 

— ,  small,  42 

Invertase,  44 

Iodine,  29 

Iron,  28,  S3,  35 


Jejunum, 


Kafir  corn,  148 

fodder,  134 

silage,  108 

soiling,  118 

stover,  134 

Kaoliang,  148 
—  fodder,  134 


Lactase,  44 
Lactochrome,  58 
Large  intestine,  45 
Legumes,  27,  55,  56 
—  for  hay,  92,  128 

silage,  109 

soiling.  III 

straw,  132 

Liberal  feeding,  174,  245 
Limestone,  28 


Linseed  oil,  33 

meal,  89,  157 

,  new  process,  158 

,  old-process,  158 

,  test  for,  158 

Lipase,  41,  42 

Lipochrome,  56 

Liver,  43 

Live  weight,  influence  of  age  on,  i 

Lymph,  44 

Lymphatics,  44 

Lysine,  52 

M 

Magnesium,  28,  35 

Maintenance,  46 

Maltase,  38,  42,  43,  44 

Maltose,  38,  44 

Malt  sprouts,  146,  241 

Mammoth  red  clo\er,  for  hay,  131 

,  —  soiling,  113 

Mangels,  55,  124 

Manyplies,  41 

Mash,  bran,  93,  241 

Mastication,  37,  38 

Meal,  blood,  163 

— ,  coconut,  159 

— ,  corn,  139 

— ,  corn-and-cob,  140 

— ,  cottonseed,  155 

— ,  fish,  163 

— ,  germ-oil,  141 

— ,  gluten,  141 

— ,  linseed-oil,  157 

— ,  palmnut,  159 

— ,  peanut,  152 

— ,  soybean,  152 

— ,  whale,  164 

Metabolizablc  energ>%  51 

Middlings,  buckwheat,  160 

— ,  flour  wheat,  145 

— ,  oat,  143 

— ,  rye,  147 

— ,  standard.  144 

— ,  wheat,  144 


27G 


IXDKX 


Middlings,  white,  144 

Milk,  34 

— ,  color,  3S,  56 

—  digestion,  42 

— ,  fat-soluble  A  in,  55 

— ,  flavor  of  corn  silage  in,  107 

—  for  calves,  dried  skim,  217 

,  skim,  216 

,  whole,  215 

— ,  influence  of  quality  on  l>alance 
of  nutrients,  85 

— , yield  on  balance  of  nutri- 
ents, 85 

— ,  insufficient  for  calves,  221 

—  pigments,  35,  56 
— ,  skim,  162 

— -;  — ,  dried,  162 

—  substitutes,  217 

—  supplements,  217 
— ,  water  in,  52,  233 

—,  water-soluble  B  in,  55 
— ,  water-soluble  C  in,  56 
— ,  whole,  161 
— ,  —  dried,  162 
Millet  grain,  14 

—  hay, 134 

—  soiling,  116 
Milo,  148 

—  fodder,  134 

—  soiling,  118 
Mixed  hay,  135 

—  pasture,  1 24 

—  silage,  no 
Molasses,  160 
— ,  beet,  161 
— , cane,  161 

—  feeds,  alfalfa,  165 

,  peat,  165 

Mouth,  37 

N 
Net  energy,  51 
"  Nicking,"   influence  on   production, 

12 
Nitrogen,  27,  ^3 


Nitrogcn-frcc  dxtract,  32,  ;i^,  52 

.  functions  of,  52 

N'on-leguminous  silage,  108 

Non-protein  nitrogenous  coni])ounds, 
53 

,  functions  of,  53 

,  influence  on  production,  63 

Nuclease,  44 

Nucleic  acids,  44 

Nutrients,  31,  44 
balance  of,  81 

,  as  aff'ected  by  age,  83 

,  — • condition,  84 

, individuality,  86 

—  — , quality  of  milk,  85 

, —  size,  83 

, stage  of  lactation. 


86 

,  yield  of  milk,  85 

comparison  of,  49 

digestibility  of,  49 

functions  of,  52 

total  digestible,  49,  50 

transportation  of,  52 

utilization  of,  46 
Nutrition,  plane  of,  63 
— ,  influence  on  production,  63 
Nutritive  ratio,  50 


Oats,  142,  143 

—  and  peas  for  hay,  135 

silage,  no 

soiling,  119 

vetch  for  soiling,  1 20 

—  clippings,  143 

—  bran, 143 

—  dust,  143 

— ,  ground,  90,  143,  240 

—  hulls,  143 

—  middlings,  143 

—  shorts,  143 

—  silage,  109 

—  soiling,  116 

—  straw,  133 


INDEX 


277 


Oats,  whole,  90 
(Esophogeal  groove,  39,  40,  41 
(Esophagus,  38 
Oil,  corn,  SS 
— ,  linseed,  141 
Oil-meal,  germ,  141. 
— ,  linseed,  89,  157 
Omasum,  38,  39,  41 
Orange  cane  for  soiling,  118 
Orchard  grass  for  soiling,  118 
Order  of  feeding,  237 
Organic  dry  matter,  31 
Overfeeding,  63,  174 
Oxygen,  26,  3°>  3^,  33 

P 
Packing-house  by-products,  163 

,  blood  meal,  163 

,  tankage,  163 

Palatability,  88 

— ,  influence  on  digestion,  89 

Palmnut  meal,  159 

Pancreas,  43 

Pancreatic  juice,  43 

Parotid  glands,  37 

Pasture,  121 

— ,  alfalfa,  124 

— ,  bloat  on,  124 

— ,  bluegrass,  122 

— ,  clover,  1 24 

—  for  calves,  223 
— ,  mixed,  1 24 

— ,  Sudan  grass,  122 
— ,  value  of,  122 
Paunch,  39 
Pea,  55,  150 

—  and  oats  for  silage,  no 
soiling,  119 

—  hay,  131 

—  vine  silage,  no 
Peanut,  152 

—  bran,  152 

—  feed,  152 

—  hulls,  152 

—  meal,  152 


Peat-molasses  feeds,  165 

Pentosans  in  corn,  139 

Pepsin,  41,  42,  43 

Pei)toncs,  42,  44 

Phosphate  for  calves,  ground  rock,  224 

Phosphorus,  28,  53,  35 

Phytin,  144 

Pigments,  35,  56 

—  ,  carotin,  35 

—  ,  carotinoids,  35 

—  ,  chlorophyll,  35 

—  in  corn,  137 

—  ,  influence  on  production,  63 

—  ,  xanthophylls,  35 
Plane  of  nutrition,  63 
Poisoning,  cottonseed,  153 
— ,  flaxseed,  157 

— ,  sorghum,  118 
Polish,  rice,  148 
Polyneuritis,  55 
Potassium,  27,  35 
Potatoes,  55,  126 
— ,  sweet,  55 
Preparation  of  corn,  138 

and-cob  meal,  140 

,  cost  of,  241 

,  cracked,  139 

,  ear,  139 

,  shelled,  139 

feed,  240 

,  barley,  240 

,  chopping,  241 

,  cooking,  242 

,  corn,  240 

— ,  grinding,  240 

■  — ,  oats,  240 

,  rolling,  240 

^,  —  barley,  240 

— ,  soaking,  241 

— .  —  beet  pulp,  241 

,  —  bran  mash,  241 

,  —  malt  sprouts,  241 

Prickly  pear  silage,  109 

Production,  factors  affecting,  ash,  63 

— , ,  carbohydrates,  60 


278 


INDEX 


Production,    factors    affecting,    con- 
dition, 63 

,  fats,  61 

,  indiN'idual  nutrients,  60 

■ ,  non-protein     nitrogenous 

compounds,  63 

,  pigments,  63 

,  plane  of  nutrition,  63 

, —  overfeeding,  63 

, underfeeding,  66 

,  proteins,  61 

,  — ,  amount  of,  61 

,  — ,  nature  of,  62 

,  vitamines,  63 

requirements  for,  76 

Products,  effect  of  feed  on,  97 

Prosecretin,  43 

Proprietar\'  feeds,  164 

— ,  alfalfa-molasses,  165 

— ,  fillers,  167 

— ,  mixed,  164 

— ,  peat-molasses,  165 

— ,  standard,  164 

— ,  tonic,  168 

Protein,  27,  28,  29,  32,  ^^^  34,  42,  53 

— ,  cost,  171 

— ,  crude,  34 

— ,  functions  of,  53 

—  in  corn,  137 

—  influence  on  production,  61 

—  supplements,  247 
,  choosing,  248 

—  supply,  247 

—  true,  34 
Proteoses,  42,  44 
Ptyalin,  38 
Pumpkins,  127 
Pylorus,  46 


Quality  of  milk,  influence  of  fat  on,  6t 

, overfeeding  on,  63 

, underfeeding  on,  60 

,  —  on  balance  of  nutrients, 

f'5 


Quality  of  proteins,  influence  on  pro- 
duction, 62 


Rape  soiling,  119 

,  influence  on  milk  flavor,  119 

Ratio,  nutritive,  50 
Rations,  formulating,  77 
— ,  winter,  198 
Rectum,  42,  45 
Red  clover  hay,  131 

soiling,  III 

Red  Dog  flour,  145 
Red-top  soiling,  118 
Regularity  of  feeding,  237 
Regurgitation,  37,  40 
Rennin,  41,  42 
Reticulum,  38,  39,  40 
Rice,  147 

—  bran,  148 

—  hulls,  147 

—  polish,  148 
Rickets,  55 

Rock  phosphate  for  calves,  224 
RoUing  grains,  240 
Roots,  32,  55,  124 

—  for  calves,  223 
Roughages,  allowance,  172 
— ,  method  of  feeding,  238 
Rumination,  40 
Rumen,  38  39,  40 
Rutabagas,  124 

— ,  influence  on  milk  flavor,  98 
Rye,  89,  147 

—  and  vetch  soiling,  1 20 

—  bran, 147 

—  distillers'  grains,  147 

—  middlings,  147 

—  silage,  109 

—  soiling,  156 

—  straw,  133 

S 
Saliva,  37,  40 
— ,  amount  of,  38 
— ,  enzymes  in,  38 


INDEX 


279 


Salivary  glands,  37 

,  parotid,  37 

,  sublingual,  37 

,  submaxillary,  37 

Salt,  27,  29,  233,  23s 

—  for  all  stock,  235 

calves,  224 

cows,  235 

— ,  methods  of  providing,  235 

Sand,  30 

Scours,  common,  252 

Secretin,  43,  44 

Selection,  influence  on  production,  7 

Shallu,  148 

—  fodder,  134 
Shelled  corn,  139 
Shorts,  barley,  146 

oat,  143 
wheat,  144 
Silage,  alfalfa,  109 
amber  cane,  108 
apple  pomace,  109 
beet  pulp,  109 

—  tops,  109 
clover,  109 
corn,  92,  loi 
— ,  acids  in,  loi 

— , ,  acetic,  loi 

— , ,  lactic,  loi 

—  and  cowpeas,  1 10 
— ■  —  peas,  no 
soybeans,  1 10 

—  cannery  refuse,  105 
feeding,  106 

—  in  summer,  107 

—  in  winter,  106 
fodder,  104 

for  calves,  223 

—  conservation,  103 

—  supplementing  pastures,  182 
frosted,  103 
grain  in,  102 

influence  on  milk  flavor,  107 
moldy,  102,  105 
packing,  102,  105 


Silage,  corn,  rate  of  removal,  107 

— ,  — ,  rotting,  105 

— ,  —  stover,  104 

— ,  — ,  value,  104,  105 

— ,  — ,  versus  soiling,  188 

— ,  — , ,  comparative  value,  190 

— ,  — , ,  economy  of,  189 

— ,  grass,  109 
— ,  kafir,  108 
— ,  mixed,  no 
— ,  oat,  109 
— ,  pea-vine,  no 
— ,  prickh-  pear,  109 
— ,  rye,  109 
— ,  sorghum,  108 
— ,  soybean,  107 
— ,  sunflower,  108 
Silicon,  30,  35 

Size,  influence  on  balance  of  nutri- 
ents, 83 
Skim  milk,  162 

,  dried,  162 

for  calves,  216 

Small  intestine,  42 

Soaking  feed,  241 

Sodium,  27,  35 

Soiling,  III,  182 

— ,  alfalfa,  ni 

— ,  amber  cane,  117 

— ,  barley,  116 

— ,  clovers,  II,  113 

— ,  corn,  115 

— ,  cowpeas,  114 

— ,  feeding  of,  192 

—  for  supplementing  pastures,  182 

— ,  grasses,  118 

— ,  millet,  116 

— ,  oats,  116 

— ,  —  and  peas,  119 

— ,  peas,  113 

— ,  production  of,  191 

— ,  rape,  119 

— ,  rye,  116 

— ,  soybeans,  114 

— ,  Sudan  grass,  117 


280 


IXDKX 


Soiling  systems,  194 
— ,  vetches,  114 

—  versus  silage,  188 
— ,  wheat,  116 
Solubles,  corn,  141 
Sorghum  fodder,  133 

—  grains,  148 

—  poisoning,  118 

—  silage,  108 

—  soiling,  114 

—  stover,  134 
Soybean,  55, 131 

—  hay, 132 

—  meal,  152 

—  silage,  109 

—  straw,  132 
Starch,  ^3-  42,  43 

—  digestion,  38,  42 
Steapsin,  43 
Sterility,  55 
Stomach,  38 

—  capacity,  39 

—  compartments,  38 

—  digestion,  38 
— ,  true,  41 
Stover,  corn,  133 
— ,  sorghum,  134 
Straws,  buckwheat,  134 
—,  cereal,  133 

— ,  flax,  134 

— ,  leguminous,  132 

Succus  entericus,  44 

Sucrose,  44 

Sudan  grass  hay,  133 

pasture,  122 

soiling,  117 

Sugar,  S3,  43,  44 

—  beets,  55,  124 
Sulphur,  28,  T,s,  35 
Sunflower  silage,  108 
Sweet  clover,  89 
Sweet  potatoes,  55 


Tankage,  163 


Teeth,  37 

Therm,  50 

Timothy  hay,  133 

—  soiling,  118 

Tongue,  37 

Tonic  feeds,  168. 

Total  digestible  nutrients,  49,  50 

True  protein,  34 

Trvpsin,  43 

Trypsinogen,  43 

Tryptophane,  62 

Turnips,  55,  124 

U 

Underfeeding,    influence    on    produc- 
tion, 64 
Use  of  home-grown  feeds,  246 


Variety  in  the  ration,  56,  62,  92 

Venous  blood,  44 

Vetches  for  soiling,  114 

Villi,  44 

Vitamines,  34,  54,  55,  56,  93 

— ,  anti-neuritic,  53 

— ,  anti-scorbutic,  56 

— ,  functions  of,  54,  55,  56 

—  in  corn,  137 

— ,  influence  on  production,  63 

— ,  milk  free  from,  54 

— ,  necessity  for  calves,  54 

W 

Water,  26,  31,  32,  52 
— ,  abundance  of,  234 

—  for  all  stock,  233 

calves,  224,  233 

cows,  233 

— ,  functions  of,  52 

— ,  influence  on  production,  60 

—  in  milk,  233 

— ,  methods  of  furnishing,  234 
— ,  purity  of,  234 

—  soluble  B,  34 
,  functions  of,  55 


INDEX 


281 


Walcr-soluble  B,  sources  of,  55 

—  soluble  C,  34 

,  functions  of,  56 

;  sources  of,  56 

— ,  source  of,  234 
Waxes,  s$ 

Whale  meal,  164 
Wheat,  34,  143,  144 

—  bran,  89,  144 
,  phytin  in,  144 

— ,  flour  wheat  middlings,  145 

—  middlings,  144 

— ,  Red  Dog  flour,  145 

—  shorts,  144 

— ,  standard  middUngs,  144 

—  straw,  133 

—  soiling,  116 
WTiey,  162 


Whey  for  calves,  216 

White  corn,  55,  137 

Whole  milk  insufficient  for  calves,  221 

Whole  oats,  143 

Winter  milk  production,  ig6 

—  rations,  iq8 


Xanthophylls,  35,  56 
Xerophthalmia,  55 


Yellow  corn,  ^Sr  ^37 
Yield  of  milk,  influence  on  balance 
of  nutrients,  85 


Zein,  137 


